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AN AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY IN ONE VOLUME.

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‘AMERICAN FARMER'S

HAND-BOOK:;

CONTAINING

DIRECTIONS FOR CLEARING, DRAINING, AND FERTILIZING LAND;
; SOWING AND HARVESTING EVERY DESCRIPTION OF CROPS;
a: TREATS OF THE MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF
DOMESTIC ANIMALS; DESCRIBES THE BEST MANNER
OF MANAGING DAIRIES, PRODUCING
HONEY, SUGAR, WINE, CIDER,
ETC., ETC.

TO WHICH IS ADDED

MANY TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

AN ASSOCIATION OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURISTS.

RE-EDITED, WITH NuMEROUS ADDITIONS,
By F. W. O’NEILL anv H. L. WILLIAMS.

Illustrated by nearly 400 Engravings.

NEW YORK:
R. WORTHINGTON, 750 BROADWAY,

MDCCCLXXX,

Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1880, by
R. WORTHINGTON,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.

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PREFACE

THE NEW EDITION.

Tue very flattering approval with which Taz American Far-
MER’s Hanp-Boox has been greeted by the agricultural community,
has encouraged the publisher to endeavor to extend its sphere of
usefulness, by incorporating in its pages such additional material as
the progressive spirit of agricultural inquiry has rendered available;
hence, the reader will find the modest book, with which, perhaps, he
was familiar in bygone days, now assuming dimensions of a more
dignified and imposing character. Much of the matter now pre-
sented in this volume for the first time, and which cannot be found
elsewhere, except in books devoted to special subjects, is of a highly
valuable as well as important nature, well deserving the undivided
attention and careful perusal of all who are engaged in agricultural
pursuits; and we trust it may have the effect to arouse an interest
in the cultivation of many plants which have as yet attracted but
little notice.

- The radical error of the American system of farming is that,
throughout the greater part of the country, the attention of farmers
and planters has been almost exclusively devoted to the cultivation
of a few staple articles, such as wheat, rye, oats, Indian corn,

(iii)

iv PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION.

cotton and tobacco ; while many very profitable branches of rural
economy, such as green crops, grape growing, fruit raising, and
garden truck have met with comparative neglect. This has arisen
in part from the tendency which people in general, of all professions,
have to fall into ruts, and pursue a certain routine simply because
it is routine.

It requires some sudden shock or violent alteration to bring the
masses into seeing the necessity of- making any vital change in the
course they have been pursuing. Within the last twenty-five years
our country has sustained several sudden and important political and
financial changes and convulsions that have had great and lasting
effects upon agriculture, manufactures and commerce. California
has shown her ability to be one of the greatest grain and fruit pro-
ducing countries upon the face of the earth ; Texas has developed a
capacity for raising stock and cultivating cotton and grain whieh has
literally amazed even the most hopeful of her citizens; the great
West pours out train after train of wheat, corn and pork in one con-
tinuous stream. At first sight this would appear injurious, if not
ruinous, to many of the older States, prolific as they are compared
with most parts of the earth. But such is not the case. Fortu-
nately almost simultaneously with these grand developments of
agricultural richness, the manufacturing powers of the country took
an immense stride in advance, and have created markets at the very
doors of our farmers for every article which they can produce.

Great improvements have been introduced in the culture of veg-
etables and fruits. Our cattle have been so much bettered by judi-
cious breeding that even English stock-raisers have bought bulls and
cows from us at what seem almost incredible prices. The quality
of our sheep has improved both in their meat-producing and wool-
yielding. In every kind of market gardening there has also been a
wonderful improvement, Fruits, large and small, have partaken of
the same astonishing progress ; until nowit is a common thing to see
in any of our city markets apples and pears, plums, nectarines, grapes,

PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. ¥,

and the lesser fruits, that equal and in some varicties surpass those
produced in the finest fruit raising countries of the world.

The products of our dairies not only find a ready and remunerative
sale in our own markets, but they command a quick and profitable
sale in countries that have been deemed beyond our competition.

Our leading statesmen, merchants and manufacturers have taken
a lively interest in promoting in every way the heathful progress of
agriculture. Knowing well that in a country where that profession is
profitably employed, fairly compensated and duly honored, not only
does wealth accumulate, but man—the noblest product of every
country—flourishes ‘‘ erect and free.”’

The many Agricultural Societies formed in the various States have
had a very favorable influence upon the development of farming in
all its branches, by bringing into comparison and competition almost
every kind of grain, roots, fruits and dairy products ; as well as the
different kinds of improved mechanical implements,

Another great advantage springing from these societies and clubs
is that they necessarily lead to the interchange of opinions, and a
comparison of methods between men fully alive to the fact that there
is no such thing as standing still in farming. The farmer’s motto
is that of New York State, ‘‘ Excelsior.”

A very profitable—though somewhat remote profit —will be found
in the preservation and propagation of our forest trees. Their judi-
cious cultivation will prove not only a source of wealth to the
individual cultivator, but the country at large will be im-
mensely benefited by the growth of the forests. Vast tracts of
country, more or less mountainous, and now scalped of the grand
foliage which once adorned them, may at little outlay be made to
grow many of our noble native trees, the woods of which are daily
becoming more and more valuable for ship and housebuilding and
for the manufacture of furniture.

Many vegetable oils and dyestuffs have been of late years much
neglected ; their scarcity will produce a demand, and then they

vi PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION.

must then rapidly advance in price. Under the appropriate head-
ings, the reader will find full and accurate instructions as to the
soil and mode of culture best adapted to the oil and dye-yielding
plants, together with a statement of their uses, and of the methods
of extracting their valuable properties.

Recently, considerable attention has been directed to the introduc-
tion of the Sorgho, or Chinese Sugar-Cane, and its congener, the
Imphee, or African Sugar-Cane—both of which were opportunely
discovered at the very period when, owing to a radically-defective
system of cultivation, the exhausted plantations of Louisiana refused
to yield their usual product of sugar. These plants have been fully.
treated of in this volume; as also the sugar-beet, a plant of inesti-
mable value in France, where its culture, and the manufacture of
sugar from its roots, profitably employ immense numbers of the
population. Cotton, tobacco, and rice have likewise been lengthily
discussed; and, as a vessel is now on its way to our shores with
large quantities of tea-plants and seed, imported by the Agricultural
Bureau of the Patent-Office, with a view to the introduction of the
culture of this plant in the United States, it has been deemed ne-
cessary to include a description of its varieties, together with their
mode of culture, and the process employed for manufacturing the
leaves into the tea of commerce. The silk culture, once an object:
of ephemeral attention, and, without good reason, consigned to obli-
vion, has also received due attention; for it is, practically, a very
important branch, and, within the limits of the Union, there are very
few localities wherein silk cannot be produced with great advantage
to the grower. Of equal importance are the instructions in regard
to the management of vineyards, and the manufacture of wines,
when the extent of country adapted to the growth of the grape is
taken into consideration, together with the vast field which its culti-

PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. vii

vation presents for the profitable investment of surplus capital and
labor.

We take the liberty here to warn our farmer friends against two
very serious and prevalent errors, which have already done much to
retard the progress of desirable improvements in agricultural science
—one of these is incredulity, which so obscures the perceptive
faculties of the individual, as to prevent him from realizing the
benefits to be derived from scientific investigation—the only solid
basis of a really progressive agriculture; while the other is the
opposite extreme — over-credulity, which induces improvident ex-
penditures for new machinery, plants, seeds, manures, etc., that
have not been thoroughly tested by a series of careful experiments,
and their adaptation to the particular locality clearly ascertained.
In the case of new seeds and plants, one experiment should never be
deemed a sufficient test; nay, even two, three, or four will sometimes
be too few to determine whether they can be profitably cultivated ;
and in no case should the farmer abandon the cultivation of any
plant which has been recommended by competent and scientific agri-
culturists, until, by repeated trials on a small scale, he has satisfied
himself that it is either unsuited to the soil, or cannot be grown
with profit.

In the Appendix will be found a collection of Tables, of great
service to the practical agriculturist, who, by their aid, may measure
his own land; ascertain the weight of his cattle by merely taking
their girth and length; find how many plants can be raised on each
perch and acre of ground, at definite distances; learn what are the
best mixtures of grass-seed for sowing on different soils, whether
for pasture, mowing, or other purposes; determine how many heaps
of manure will be required to cover an acre of ground at different

viii PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION.

distances, as well as the number of loads to the acre ; andata glance,
satisfy himself as to the amount of ground he can plough per day,
with certain widths of furrow slice, and at certain rates of speed.

In the following pages we present our readers with engravings of
different kinds of implements used in farming. They are such as
have been thoroughly tested and have been found to fulfill the ob-
jects for which they were intended.

As almost every day brings before the public the claim of some in-
ventor who desires to introduce a new article to lessen the demand
for manual force, or to execute work with more rapidity and per-
fectness, we cannot in justice to them or to contemplated purchasers
do anything but advise buyers to make personal examination, with
the assistance of experts, before laying out money for what may
prove little or no improvements over the time-tested implements
they already have in use. While on this subject we may say that we
thank Mr. A. B. Griffin, of New York, for some of the modern en-
gravings which appear in the volume. It is not good to mutiply
labor-saving agricultural machines without reflection. Mr. Frank
Wilkeson, a very able writer on Agricultural matters, recently re-
marked :

‘There has been a great deal written about our labor-
saving harvesting machinery, and most people think they are money-
saving machines also. Thisisa mistake. With the single excep-
tion of the header (and this tool cannot be used in a damp climate)
none of them save money. They save labor, but notmoney. They
enable one man to do the work of three or four men, but he does it
at the price of four or five men’s work. Instead of the money being
paid to the farm laborers of the agricultural regions, it is sent out of
the farming districts into the manufacturing districts to pay for
machinery and binding wire. An improved self-binding harvester
costs $300 ; an old-fashioned cradle costs $4; and with equal care
the cradle will outlast. the binder. Where men are plenty the
grain can be cut cheaper with a cradle than with a self-binder.”

PREFACE,

In presenting to the American public a work on AGRICULTURE AND
THE VARIOUS ARTS AND SCIENCES CONNECTED WITH ITS MORE PER-
FEcT KNowLEDGE aND Practice, we feel that we should hardly be
satisfied with the common prize of authorial ambition, — the mere
approval of our book by the community at large. We should be
far better pleased, could the volume be the means of so stimulating
scientific inquiry and advancing the noble cause of Agriculture, that
the very work itself should soon be superseded by the improvements
it may cause.

It would be an easy, and by no means disagreeable task, to occupy,
as is sometimes the practice with authors, a score of pages, or more,
with a Preface or Introduction, elaborately demonstrating the
impertance of agriculture to mankind in the light of political econ-
omy, and especially its vital connection with the continued advance-
ment, in prosperity and power, of this mighty republic; and, from
such premises, it would not be difficult to deduce abundant facts,
principles and suggestions, valuable, in a social and economical point
of view, alike to the cultivator of the soil and to all other classes of
citizens. The value of many of the more difficult arts and sciences
may, indeed, be appropriately dwelt upon, in text-books devoted to
their discussion, from the fact that their importance is, as yet, far
from being generally acknowledged, or their principles adequately
understood. But who can be so blind, in this day of light, as to
need any studied accumulation of evidence to show the value and
magnitude of agriculture and its kindred employments? Argument

3 . (ix )

x PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION,

can hardly enhance them ; eloquence, in its most select phrases, can
no further embellish them. The earth itself is not more the foun-
dation on which we stand, than the cultivation of the soil is the
foundation of all national existence, all political stability, all social
and mental progress. What government — what community — could
be sustained, what form of public or domestic happiness could be
enjoyed, without food, clothing and shelter? And does not the
bulk of food, clothing and shelter, come out of the earth ? and,
with very inconsiderable exceptions, are they not the result of
manual toil and culture? A few things are of spontaneous produc-
tion, but the limits of spontaneous production are soon reached.
Without other resources, nine tenths of the present population of the
globe would perish before another annual revolution of the sun.
The agriculturist, then, feeds and clothes and shelters the world.
Further improvements in this great department of human effort
would enable it to feed and clothe and shelter the world with more
adequacy, with greater comfort, with a higher ornament. Advanced
still further, other tens and hundreds of millions of beings might
rejoice in its bounties; and human imagination cannot assign a
limit beyond which the creative, or, at least, the sustaining power of
agriculture cannot go, in filling the ranks and improving the races
of mankind. ‘The correctness of these views, however, it has been
presumed, is the conviction of every intelligent agriculturist in this
country; and if to this were added a due appreciation and improve-
ment, on his part, of the means afforded him zealously to fulfil the
duties and responsibilities of his vocation, the speedy attainment of
comparative perfection in husbandry pursuits would no longer be
problematical. To the realization of this end,— so earnestly to be
desired, — these pages, it is humbly hoped, will contribute in no
small degree.

But, in addition to expatiating upon the political and physical
relations of agriculture to mankind, it is not unusual for authors or
editors of agricultural books, in order to excite, on the part of farmers
and the community in general, an increased interest in the cause of
agriculture, — as well as to commend their own labors to public
favor, — to indulge in elaborate encomiums on the moral dignity of
tural pursuits, and their adaptedness to ennoble the lives and char-

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xi

acters of those who engage in them. Such encomiums are just, and,
in their proper place, useful and gratifying. No reflective person,
however, whether he be a farmer or a tradesman, will need to be
informed of the tendency of constant communion with the works and
phenomena of nature to purify the thoughts, and thus exert a largely
restraining influence upon the dark passions of the human soul.
No man works more in the immediate presence of his Creator than
the husbandman. He sees Him not only “in the cool of the day,”
but in every waking moment;— $in the purity and fragrance of the
circumambient atmosphere, — in the untamed grandeur of Nature’s
mountains, rocks, fields, forests, and gushing waters, — in the germ-
ination of every seed,— in the growth of every leaf and of every
blade of grass, — by these, and numberless objects. besides, is he
impressed, not only with the power, wisdom and goodness, of Him
who “causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herbs for the
service of man,” but with the gracious course of His providence,
which rewards every discovery of His laws, and every act of obedi-
ence to them. It is uttering no harsh judgment, then, when we say,
briefly, that the man who can live and labor, surrounded by so many
and so palpable attestations of a beneficent and controling Powet
above, without realizing the nearness of his relations to that Power,
or without hymning in his heart devout ascriptions of praise and
gratitude, is a sad example of the derangement which sometimes
characterizes man’s moral machinery. And if, with the Book of
Nature thus unfolded so luminously before him, his feelings fail to
be voluntarily awakened to a sense of the honorable character of his
employment, and of his duty to improve every means and facility
that will enable him to become skilful and thrifty in his calling, no
words of rhetoric, however eloquent, will be able to arouse them.

Beyond, therefore, the simple assurance, to those into whose hands
this work may fall, that it is the result of patient and laborious study,
diligent investigation, and enlightened scientific experiment, con-
firmed by careful and discriminating practice, — and that it embraces
within its scope every important topic or subject treated of by the
most eminent practical writers on Agricultural Economy, in all its
ramifications, — introductory comment on the design and character
of this volume is unnecessary.

xii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

To those for whose use and benefit it has been prepared, — the
AericuLturist — the Market Garpener—the Damry Farmer—
the Frurr Grower —the Stock Raiser — the Poutrry Breeper —
the Bee Keeper —the Friorisr—and the Rurat Arcuirect, —
this volume is respectfully commended, with the earnest hope that
it will prove to them a valuable, substantial, and profitable aid.

speed.

\ \ ‘ \
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Wit \\

A KICKER SUBDUED BY MR. RAREY, THE AMERICAN HORSK TAMER.

‘In Colt-breaking, to command obedience and insure confidence are
the first points aimed at; and, as such, the importance of early handling
must be evident. Colts are now taken ‘in hand’ much earlier than
formerly ; racing colts at a twelvemonth, and saddle colts of promise
are now bitted and suppled at two, and are finally and fully broken and
trained, some at three, and few later than four years old. If, however,
the new system inducted by Mr. Rarey proves successful in breaking,
not only a great saving of time with all horses, but much wear and tear
of constitution with race horses will be effected.’’—Blaine’s Encuclopedia
of Rural Sports, p. 287.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

SOILS:— THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.

PAGE
The Composition of Soils— Their Classification — Analysis — Relation between

the Soil and Subsoil— Means of increasing their Productive Powers, and
rendering them fit for Cultivation, viz.— Altering the proportion of their
Ingredients — Clearing — Ploughing — Harrowing — Rolling — Manuring —

Draining — Irrigating — Rotation of Crops.....cccccscsssccessseces sessecacs sessseees 29

CHAPTER II.
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.

Wheat — Barley — Rye — The Oat — Indian Corn — Buckwheat — The Potato
— Sweet Potato — Sugar-Beet — Sugar-Cane — Chinese Sugar-Cane —
African Sugar-Cane — Cotton — Tobacco — Rice — Tea — Broom-Corn —
Millet — Hemp — Flax — Lucern — Sainfoin — The Tare — Clover — The

Grasses — Motive Powers for Farm Purposes........ mab sacesunnetyensechsresncecciecei) Oe

CHAPTES. GLI.

PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR USES IN THE ARTS, AND FOR
THEIR OILS.

Indigo — Madder —Weld —Woad — Turmeric — Sumach — Bastard Saffron —
Teasel — Colza — Rape — Sun-Flower — Castor-Oil Planta.....s.ssesseseee sees . 166
2 . (xiii)

xiv CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

THE KITCHEN GARDEN.

VEGETABLES : —Artichoke —Asparagus — Borage — Bean — Beet — Borecole —
Broccoli — Cabbage — Cardoon — Carrot — Cauliflower — Celery — Chive —
Corn — Corn-salad — Cress — Cucumber — Dandelion — Egg-plant — Endive
— Garlic — Hop — Horse-radish — Leek — Lettuce — Morel — Mushroom —-
Mustard — Onion — Okra — Parsnip — Pea — Pepper — Pumpkin — Radish
— Rape (edible-rooted) — Rhubarb — Salsify — Scorzonera — Sea-kale —
Shallot — Skirret — Spinach — Squash — Tomato— Turnip. Herbs, ete.
— Anise — Balm — Basil — Caraway — Camomile — Coriander — Chervil —
Dill — Fennel — Foxglove — Horehound — Hyssop — Lavender — Liquorice
— Marjoram — Mint — Parsley — Pennyroyal — Peppermint — Purslane —
Rosemary — Rue — Saffron — Sage — Savory — Tansy — Thyme: — With a
Monthly Calendar of Operations....... sce gecasecasvtosrsnsleccesacon spaenahenheasneceeememnens

CHAPTER V.

THE DAIRY.

Dairy Implements — Management — Milk — Butter-making — Cheese-making
—Inecluding all the most celebrated and esteemed ModeS.....cccccsecseereeees 220

CHAPTER VI.
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.

STANDARD Kinps:— Apple (including Cider Making) — Apricot — Barberry
— Blackberry — Cherry — Cranberry — Currant — Gooseberry — Grape
(including Vineyards and Manufacture of Wine) — Medlar — Melon —
Mulberry — Nectarine — Peach — Pear — Plum — Quince — Raspberry —
Strawberry. MisceELLANnEous Kinps: — Almond — Blueberry — Butternut
— Chestnut — Fig — Filbert — Lemon — Lime — Olive — Orange — Pome.
granate — Sheilbark — Walnut — Whortleberry — With a Monthly Calendar

Of Operations. ssisuaccessdecaiestorrecelasessanrslsssveosen adsl boosie sunessgoresceseneeis treater eens

CONTENTS. xv

CHAPTER VEIT.
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. ]

The Rearing, Breeding, Diseases, and General Care of —The Bull—The
Ox — The Cow — Sheep — Swine —The Horse— The Ass—The Mule —The
Goat — The Dog, —in all their Standard Varieties — With a Monthly

MAUMEE Oon O POLE GUM acta cnuas)(ovduvcssisestaccou vastastrsccscrsissespusenacessacs ebssscsseal OL 0

CHAPTER VIII.

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.

The Raising, Breeding, Diseases, and Treatment of the common Barn Fowls:
— Caponizing —also The Turkey — The Goose —The Duck —in all their

important Varieties....... ssc seesoee Mar evasieessons Rncaseeeaedccnesisustde senseniancsesias) O00)

CHAPTER IX.
BEES AND SILK-WORMS.

Different Classes of Bees— Position of the Apiary —Hives and Boxes —
Obtaining Stock — Swarming — The Honey Harvest — Management during
Winter and Early Spring — How to treat the Produce of the Honey
Harvest — The Enemies and Diseases of Bees: — Silk-worms and Mulberry

PURER eons chat ndcckcasheducctvorescandwcrece eaeceneces piacuceacuecccdes celsvnesusudsccassonuevienssnep ZL

CTA Pi h 20.
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL TREES, ETC.

The Culture of Flowers — Plans for Flower-Gardens — Description of Standard
Varieties of Flowers — Ornamental Shrubs — Ornamental and Useful Trees
— With a Monthly Floricultural Calendar..........cccss cesses sees se suocesasvescun's - 465

CHAPTER XI.
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.

The Construction of Farm Dwellings and Cottages — Dairies — Barns —
Stables — Cart-Sheds and Implement-Houses — Granaries — Cattle-Sheds —
Ice-Houses — Sheep-Folds — Piggeries — Poultry-Houses — Arrangement
of the Farmery — Green-Houses — Fences and Gates — Hedges..........0.0. 512

xvi CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XII.
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.

The Improved Modes of Grafting — Budding — Pruning — Training....0.0.0000008 564

CHAPTER XIII.

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.

Blight or Blast — Canker or Caries — Consumption — Contortion — Dropsy —
Ergot — Honey-Dew — Curl — Mildew — Potato Rot — Smut — Cotton Rot
— Cotton Rust — Cotton Blight — Sore-Shin........... poset cousensalevseeecauhisens ame ea

CHA PIP 2ory.
NOXIOUS INSECTS AND ANIMALS.

Insects which live constantly on or in Domestic Animals, and propagate
on them — Insects which injure Grain — Insects injurious to Culinary
Vegetables — Insects injurious to Fruits, Fruit-Trees, Shrubs, and Vines —
Insects injurious to Flower-Plants — Insects injurious to Meadows —
Insects injurious to the Cotton Plant— Animals injurious to Cultivated
HicldS tecsccesssssevecuateuceeess Eeaieeseeaeses wldede es veces cconcviseacay'rsaueseseasasaaassmenecsassmiirais

APPENDIX,

Containing Tables, by the use of which a Farmer may be greatly assisted in

his Calculations...... saeoustale eanritansccineweees NasseoeaieceConsoos wcescsscierebeeee seaneee cceeas OSG

DeFinitIons oF Worps,— ScienTiFic, TECHNICAL, AND PECULIAR, — coM-
MONLY USED IN CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURAL AND KINDRED SuBJEcTs.. 693

InDEX PO CCRE FSS COO REEOE PO DETOE TS COLT SEDE FHOSESEES FS SFOSEEES BEDE SEDSE POSSESSES UO OOHOOSS OOESED CAEESEOSE 699

SeAopDIFIED LIST

OF ENGRAVINGS.

AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS.

Fig. PAGE | FIG. PAGE

4. Root-grubber — mode of ope- 30. Draining Peat Lands............. 59
ACID decapricssscaecniannaecssaiessd 28| 31. “ ig UO a =SoscBlesenccs 59

6. Stump Extractor — mode of ope- 32. Draining Clay Lands............. 61
TAGLINE ccvccccescoccssencesccsses sere 30 | 35. Meadow Watering ......sescsrees 64

10. European Dirt-shovel — mode of 36. Cateh-work Irrigation ........0 65
OPCLALIDG .-wcves ecoceceevsvessense 33 | 40. Mowing Machine —~ mode of

12. Appearance of badly-ploughed OQDENALIN ic. sassseganeeaseesbeatecs 74
SIPS peice teases (anita nds sleuesewicoms oir <s 36 | 50. Hand Corn-planter — mode of

13. Ploughing with Double Team... 37 OPCLAtiNg ......000 covcenceserevesse 88

15. Diagram of Ridge-ploughing ... 39] 56. Transverse Section of Potato-

16. a se ss w. 40 GTS ccsevccsiepesssseh ounaeneaised- 97

17. Transverse Section of Ridge- 57. Transverse Section of Potato-
ploughing ..... “ScO coectee Ga Beer 41 GUIL[Gi cc eercmwalanccveseslesesnuerwslekues 98

1. Illustration of Casting, in plough- 86. Grass Seed Sower — mode of
IND desecaes “pttcenbon scarce a3 esto 41 OPCLAtiNgG ....secee sesecseosicaressces 155

19. Illustration of Casting, in plough- 89. Delano’s Horse Hay-Rake —
HINO Vaosentech panne aved tienespneii-asue es 42 mode of Operating ......ssesecer 158

20. Illustration of Cleaving, in 93. Horse Power — operation of.... 164
MALOU ININ Des cnccewarsqacachesisosndess 42| 98. Modes of supporting Running

21. Diagram of Cross-ploughing.... 43 Pl aUittiecesseenacecsrcackGowreaicoraps: LOM

29. Earths and Springs ............0604 581105. Turnip culture .........ssssceses eee 208

GRAINS, GRASSES, VEGETABLES, HERBS, ETC.

87. Different kinds of Wheat...,.... 70 | 45. The Rye plant .......:+sseeseseeses 79

38. Classification of Wheat by the 47, Different kinds of Oats........... 82
BRUM Mieew wan cnsicueseer once syrsecey se 70 | 49. The Indian corn plant........... 85

42. Classification of Barley by the 55. “ Buckwheat “ ...s.secone 93
PEAS texters speycusssccacesweses a, VO] O00. © SOLAT-CANG, — **. as cceescena 104

43. Different kinds of Barley........ 77 | 60. “ Chinese Sugar-cane plant, 110
27 e ( xvii )

Herd, or Fowl] Meadow Grass... 152

Sweet-scented Vernal Grass... 152
Pony ‘Grass\....scoeswsssrsneonees cass De
The Indigo plant ..........++ sores 166
Bastard Saffron .........ssse0s Gaeee 175
The Castor-oil plant ........ merce «fs!
Hop plants, male and female... 196
The, Morel splamticsescsexcicsassseete 200
The Mushroom plant..........00 200
Varieties of the Mustard plant, 201
The Pea plant .....00. Sie deaupetaenee 203
<¢ Rhubarb planttie-ceusescsters 205
s* (Caraway “€oaetccsesestcotees 210
sta Coniander 1S aeiireresestees 211
“5 Lavender” <p eireccesdeecers 212
se Liquorice) “to eiceccedetesnase 213
“Parsley SO eeenecnasiees . 214
“Saffron 66 ssvsveneecceece 2LD
American Amber Cherry......... 268
Downer’s Late Cherry ......0++0 269
Early White-heart Cherry....... 269
The Cranberry .......+. dans tess esse
White Currant......... Ssenvecse' sone 272
Black SC) \eenccusnhteaeeen sissas) Zilles
Melling’s Crown-bob Goose-
DOLLY coccscersesteccceskccreteee eens 275
Houghton’s Seedling Goose-
DEITY cecsc.eeecodaeeee iF Srameerevees 275
Black Hamburgh Grape......... 277

xvlll CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
62. The Cotton plant.........ssscscees 116} 83.
Gia mL O DACCO MAN Meceeasscajaslcatne as 122) 84.
Gem mL uiCO lM amne | Tecsescpeasanssesan 128} 85.
GS ce Nea. SSE ecerwentececenass 130] 95.
iO Seem O GEE GS srcesvesaiteearwes's 135] 96.
Zils CO LEIS crys) Sl) RBS sieaesesens 137] 97.
eto Bax. Ae) ola Saehuacieneuecese 140 | 99,
TER Bo Tinnteperday COST er ennesccsncos - 143 | 100.
Omen See DAINLOIN a! 2 Coschesceneasceeee 145 | 101.
fO.8 <<) “Tare Gos desesont annonce 146 | 102.
"7. Different kinds of Clover........ 147 | 103.
78. Meadow or Green Grass ........ . 149 | 104,
79. Timothy, Cat’s Tail, or Herd 107.

GaSe pceeecscaeemececesiasenmasniiess 150 | 108.

80. Orchard Grass, or Cock’s Foot 109.
Gass ecsecccslaceccescaiessedaareien ats 150 | 110,

81. Meadow Fescue Grass ........... 151 | 111.
82. Ray or Rye CO seanesecee-a0 151 1112.
FRUITS

120. Early Harvest Apple.......css0+- 251 | 145.
21) Ried Astrachanys: & Viseeceseseenas 252 | 146.
122. Williams’s Favorite Apple...... 252) Ay.
123. Juneating (6 dasens 253 | 148.
124. Summer Queen CORRS eas 253 | 150.
125. Maiden’s Blush CaN eecs's 254) 151.
126. Gravenstein CON tosses 255 | 152.
127. Rambo ce 255
128. Yellow Bellflower OF onde 256 | 153.
129. Esopus Spitzenberg “ ...... 257

130. Baldwin Set ceese 257 | 154.

131. Hubbardston Nonsuch “ ...... 258 | 155.
32. Westfield Seek-no-further Ap-

Pleeeececeen taverscncecssenssensenaccs 259 | 156.

133. Roxbury Russet Apple........... 259 | 157.

134, Golden Pippin CUS unt eiee 260 | 158.

135. Lady SO eotaee tees 260 | 159.

136. Harrison Shey Seats Seat 261 | 160.

137. Red Siberian Crab Apple ........ 262 | 161.

139. Marly ApiICObiss.s:accclssecsascalisase 262 | 162.

TA0. sPeaci" pe) cuss ceteaeuccreneneanas 265 | 163.

VETS ABLUSSC!S scl veda sasaatsackwesiaelceeet 265 | 164.

142. The Barberry........00s.-cesecsieazee 200 | LOD.

143. The Blackberry...........sevcsescs 267 | 166.

144. Black-heart Cherry...........ss00 268 | 167.

Muscat of Alexandria (red and
white) Grape......... Soc oaeeneieess 277
Catawba Grape.....c...cssceasteece 278
Tsabella ~~ “¢" ccsosscsinuasenmeneds 278
Section of a bearing Vine...... 279
The: Meloni. <cecc-clecasnceemneaeee we. 284
The: Mulberry scs<sccasjesressseneesen 285,
Jaune Lisse Nectarine ........0-. 286
Musk, Violet, 9) “* \pescansenens 286
Gros Mignonne Peach......... ve. 288
Alberge sO hearer ecetne 288
Red Magdalen SO ie cacace sone 289
Late Heath Co teseanncaee 290
Bartlett Pear ........ Accenss Seotie, ERP

CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. xix
168, Winter Nelis Pear ................. 293 | 180, Franconia Raspberry .........+++ 304
169. Seckel SOE cakeuene maneacea 293 | 181. Large Early Scarlet Strawberry, 306
Moveaeunre: Bose) Sescccssececoucss 294 | 182. Hovey’s Seedling 307
171. Muscadine Ee turstsucsseees F200) Loo. Swamstone sa. “ 308
172. Jefferson Plum...... Madveseutente es 297 | 184. Ross Phoenix se 308
iomrcareem Aree i cscsreewwepeese 297 | 185. Prolific Hautbois $6 306
174, Purple Favorite Plum............ 298 | 186. Cushing bd 309
7. bleeckera Gare’ Viiie cawces 299 | 187. The Fig ....... eadenvese seine toeeys we 310
AieseO Mane SP Urple: SOs sce tases ZOOMLUSS. 2, emi we ccccccnicewccecescseasees 311
177. Frost Gage COPM eee ens eees s SOOAMEBOS “<% Litnto;. <2: .csenkecsccosuteceteecsas 312
i178. Apple-shaped Quince .......-...0.302 | 190... Olives... cccsesescvoscncsccassess 312

179. Fastolff Raspberry .............006 SOS TIL Orange'....cc :ccccacacescnces wo. 313

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.

194. Explanatory Skeleton of the Ox, 323 | 211. Black-faced or Heath Sheep... 348

195. Prize Dairy Native Cow Zien MCTING SHCODic.cccscesssseceeselssss0 348

Beaeyesteiseecsasesisseckeaspiescs sy 325 | 213. Explanatory Skeleton of Pig... 351
196. Devon Bull ........ Bienes cocenesscnes WOH EAs CHING LOL cccecaseissecnessa/accasanns 353
eM EO Xo sCcctnen jescuccce acess see OA 210s, Berkshire HOP ...<.sescesett eves . 354
198, > Meee aaseuce delete igacsd das vasese 328 | 216. Suffolk Ca i Deceenccecain upon ee ati!
Pe eames titate, COW cs cxeues sce axane'e:ceaanu ss 329 | 217. Siamese Sow and Litter ......... 355
201. Short-horned Bull................. 300 | 218. Explanatory Figure of Horse.. 358
202. “s ORV ceaetsees\aass sae DOM AhOe ATA DIAN ELOTSE) sarces vsseesioneassude 359
PU emEPOrELOLd, COW’ sscovsescasccccecees cee 352 | 220. American Race Horse..........5. 360
BSP AUUELINE ESL, 5yccueesdacoscnnssieveus 339'| 221. ae Eisai 2 mceceruceteed DOU
205. a COWiesesasscevecstessiasers 333 | 222. Norman (European) Horse...... 361
206. New Leicester Cow .............0+ 334 | 223. Thibet Goat ......cccsscacs aaasase ss 364
208. New Leicester Sheep ..........008 843 | 224. Newfoundland Dog ..........+000 366
209. Cotswold Sheep ............sccsseee 346 | 225. Shepherd’s Soe epee danenivecse 366
210. South-Down Ewe and Lamb... 347! 226. Terrier soiivresna cas elisstee 367

DOMESTIC FOWLS.

227. Shanghai ........ Scatesseadtussrcas ... 387 | 234. Ostrich or Co’n-China Rooster, 393
228.) Bankiva COCK ..;..ccscesscovscossesce DOCU COder MUL KO Vicaceececevccccesss, coucseee wacre 398
AAD DOLKINE BOW!S .2:occccssscvsesee vee 389 | 236. Toulouse Goose ......00+seceee coos 401
230. Jago or Spanish Fowls........... SOOM zar<sOOramon f). cccascclencsepvestae 402
231. Crested or Poland “ ........... 391 | 238. Rouen or Rhone Duck........... 407
232. Bantam Cock ........ Woceresvee ere 391 | 239. English or Aylesbury Duck.... 407

238. Ostrich or Cochin-China Hen... 392| 240. Muscovy Ducks

33.
246.
247.
248.
249,
250.
251.
252.
253.
254,
255.
256.
274.
275.
276.
277.
291.
292.
293.
294.
295.

296.

297.
298.

299.

300.

264.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
330.
331.
332.
842.

CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

RURAL STRUCTURES, MECHANICAL OPERATIONS, ETC.

Different kinds of Drains........ 62 | 301.
Plower-pot Hive .......+. ss.csese-s 430 | 302.
oprtorissiivie-sxeesssp sscecessviows oll

Huish’s We pastno cc aconece 432
Gilmore’s Bee-house ...5.+.ce+0+- 432
Construction of Gilmore’s Hive, 433
6“ “ “ “ 434
Back-side of ns «4835
Boxes in Gilmore’s Hive......... 435
Arrangement of Gilmore’s Hive, 436
“ec “cc 6c “cc 437
ce “ “ “ce 438
Arbor for a Garden ........... wees 485
Garden Seat... ....2sesescseck peatcee 485
Fountain for a Garden ........0. 486
Sibel GS Ge eas 487
Ground-plan of Farm-house... 518
G “ one-story house 514
Model of Medium-sized eS DIS
Ground-plan of “ San 255
Side Elevation of Medium-sized
LOUISE ccc geneastencavesuspeccs=seaecs 515
Upper Floor of Medium-sized
IOUS le seveneneiecseacssisnaservesoane 516
Model of large Farm-house..... 516
Side Elevation of large Farm-
IN GHSE Se cwas ccs saseeconstearcrscesisears 517
Ground-plan of large Farm-
MOUSCa0ks~scosigrasacsanjcssesne- nacre ble
Upper floor oflarge Farm-house, 518

303. Ground-plan of double Cottage
Structurestes .ss-wseusseceiseemarene 520
304. Upper floor of double Cottage
Structure: .c..sc-cmcece<deeeeeeeens 520
305. Moderate-sized Cottage .......... 521
306. Plan of Dairy Apartments...... 522
307. Model of Complete Dairy ....... 524
308. Ground-floor of Complete Dairy, 525
309. Side Elevation of “ cs 525
310. Upper floor oe a 52€
311. Model of Washington Barn..... 528
312. Model of Buel’s Barn ..........+. 529
313. End and Side View of Buel’s
| [BATH ccence-ncsseaewnt ete eee ee . 530
315. Arrangement of Cattle-shed.., 534
316. Apartment and Apparatus for
Boiling’ Food.:..sccsase-ccoonse=e 539
B17. Pig-house ....-2cscccarcuseciesusganse 541
318. Improved Nest for Hens......... 546
319. Plan of Buildings for a large
HAG: ,.0sn0ccescseensseeeeaeeentannen 548
320. Plan of Buildings for a small
Rann ies 2c sesnsisasaaaseieeeeeecei nee 549°
321. Cellular Wall-work for Green-
OUSE caw sscssmesrcsee=eeeeeestineeer 551
322. Mode of building Stone Wall... 554
Sy aca wy Gates’ <..cass0 » 555

Tudor Cottage ......... wo NeetionG . 519
Model of double Cottage Strue-

Re eorcere oreeeeees ceesecess eeseeee

HORTICULTURAL AND FLORICULTURAL OPERATIONS.

Plan for Flower-garden .......... 468
ya A isercercosr 471
Seo ee “ nceeecatos 472
GO ea SE ee peed 472
CN Em ge PACS AUC 472
came SM he Fe ncsasccc 473

Weeping-willow Arbor ........... 484

The processes of Grafting ...... 568

Grafting the Vime's..,ce<cscceoseers 570

The processes of Budding....... 575

Training Grape-vine in a Pot.. 588

343.
344,
345.
346.
347.
348.

349.

350.

Balloon-training of the Rose... 589
Spiral-cylinder Training......... 592

Spurring-in Training .........0 . 595
Conical or Quenouille Training, 593
Fan Training, in its first stage, 594
Fan Training, in its advanced
SUMQC su sceueen «pes askee ebarbeicereemens 595
Horizontal Training, in its first
Sta @Olessaepccuqeee pia uank Seema 596
Horizontal Training, in its ad-
VANCEO Sth Cle ne cee senacnseenaee 596

CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

TREES, FLOWERS, HEDGE-PLANTS, ETC.

26U. Morus Alba, or the White Mul-
berry ...... woucauscane ke Rawane heads Atah
261. Morus Multicaulis........ adeca aie 461
EAU INATCISSUG ecccssescsecascres acacceseds 405
281. Passion Flower....s...+sseeeeee aece 493
IS MORE tec sdesiaesaesave secssesepecsmecs 200
287. Magnolia Grandiflora ............ 504

288,
289,
290.
324,
325.
326.
327.

European Silver Fir.........s00008 505

Evergreen Cypress...... sweossndeacs OUD
Norway Spruce Fir .......... weeee 506
Osage Orange Hedge........ eg /
Haney Locust):<...scssecsrccnes ccna" 008
Cactus Tuna...... cealsunannonelace end 560

Cactus Opuntia ...cecccccscccresssee 500

FARMING IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES, UTENSILS, ETC.

1. Rounded Shovel ..... Savenieuee asta ae
2, Square Shovel........ aap deans’ Sees asa
3. Spade ..... Sianidewaeesdelaevcvaseeidseest 27
@: Boot-pnller......0s0c<sscoecs sooes cate 29
7. Bramble-book...... Smead see aa veidaes 32
8. Paring Plough...... pal senancead cide 32
9. Dirt-scraper, or Ground-leveler, 33
11. Premium Plough, Eagle No.1, 34
14, Premium Plough, with Lock-
coulter, Wheel, and Draft-rod, 37
22. Premium Subsoil Plough ........ 43
ASE SICOLGH) ELALTOW. cocnssesciesencascees . 46
24, Geddes Harrow......00csecccccescee 47
25. Field Roller ........ eppataestiieedcie 48
26. Large Six-pronged Manure Fork 51
27. Small-sized Ut ce od
28. Improved Expanding Cultivator 52
34, Machine for Irrigating ........... 63
39. Horse-drill...........00 masiitcwaas ame 73
41. Fan-mill for Cleaning Grain... 75
44, Hummelling Machine............ 78
46. Machine for Cleaning Smutty
Grain, &c. ........ Seaesua aanerenes 81
48. Grain Cradle .......cssccsecsesesees . 84
51. Universal Cultivator ......00. ses 90
52. Corn-cracker...... stelevacss Steen 91
53. Reading’s Corn-sheller........... 92
54. Corn and Cob-crusher............ 92
59. Sugar-cane Knife .........s.cceseee 106
61. Cane-crusher...... SaaheanannsaNceces 113
63. Cotton Harrow ..........s0000s:2e0. 118
64. Eagle Cotton-gin ............seece 121
67. Rice-huller and polisher......... 130
69.

Broom-corn Scrapers.sersees serene 134

73.
87.
88.
90.
91.
92.
94,
106.
113.
114.
115.
116.
Te
118.
119.
138.
149.,
192.
193.
199.
207.
259.

262.
263.
265.
266.
267.
278.
279.
283.
284.
285.
286.

Rippling Machine for Flax....., 142
Baythes eis so. 2000 Cavebdeas aaaases 156
Hay Elevator ........ aiiedseess ees 157
Revolving Horse Hay-rake..... 159
Dederick’s Hay-press.......0..+++ 160
Webbs Windemitll’,. SJacceversen 163
Patent Portable Grist-mill...... 165
Vegetable: Cutter......soscsvsvecess 209
Cheese-press ......00s Geaddudscsbcese 221
Self-acting Press........ Uootaseseos 221
Thermometer Churn .......0+se00 222
Cylindrical’ Churn. scccesscessesess. 2G
Ganltis Churny stccccsslsaccccssences 223
HrwihiGanheren'.cccossssiscssteecscce 250
a So Raceaevenclaseae Rieaenes 251
Hicock’s Cider-mill ......... Saasite 263
Cranberny HakOnt cccsscsecsesczecs 271
Ox-chain and Bull-ring......,... 317
Hay and Straw-cutter..........68 321
OIRAV OKC scscccvsccecusecclesaat’seevene 328
HAGtOMGLORS sevcscaninostesscs cracer aie 337
Instrument for fumigating Bee-
EUVORs tetcesimascnsecescessece otenvs 446
aNQeMVl WK Occesesccscaccevacsisnerss 465
SOMME ISI UIN GON: ocasccea/ccescsaeses 466
StPETEEUG ILO Cea ane sales cscedeninace 468
Grass-edge Parer .....ssccsccscceee 469
Garden Trowel ...ccscovecescecesess 469
Grass-edging Shears .......sesese 488
Ladies’ Garden Shears ....... cove 488
Scissors for Cutting Flowers... 496

Machine for Watering Gardens, 498
Briar or Bill-hook ...... ScAeE ceive 499
Pruning Shears .....sscsccsscssseee 499

CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

336.
337.
338.
339.
340.
O41,

Pruning Knife (different form), 578
Budding Knife ......... shecsconeee’ 578
Small Pruning Knife.............. 578
Pole-pruning Shears ......... seco One
Lopping or Branch Shears...... 581
Sliding Pruning Shears........... 581

BEES AND OTHER INSECTS, AND THEIR OPERATIONS.

xxii

314. Improved Barn-door Rollers... 530
B28. Hedge Shearsis.cssccsaasessceseseese 562
329. Grafting Chisel.........scsscseee peo
333. Pruning Chisel ..........ssccsoseees 577
334 ce MGIGSOPS) ceccscccssccssescs 578
335 Be IKirmifetsescecesessencresne 578
Dal) \QUCENUB EO. .cscccasiereseceasicnascsteen
DAstee YONG) "Ss | eessceseaeoceseccsnecen secs A417
243. Wiorking? Be@scscesccostonceuceseesse A17
244. Form of the Bee’s Sting......... 419

. Operations of Bees in the Cells, 420

257. Comb, or Hexagonal Cells, of
ISGES|:cacenevaleveseccnnstavesemanteree 439
258. Swarming of Bees ........0s.scees 442
351. Horse Bot-fly and Larva......... 637
352. Wire-worm, Larva, and anato-
Ma) peeeccpracca ren slucasveasnfosceace 641
853. Hessian Fly and its operations, 643

355.
356.
357.
358.
359,
360.
361.
362.
363.
364,

416] 354. Wheat Midge, Larva, and ope-

TATIONS ....<cccneveustees sswcacsvanes 644
Cabbage Moth and Caterpillar, 647
Onion Fly, Larva, &¢. ......0..0 649
Black-veined White Butterfly.. 650

= Winter, Mothve.sceseseeececese bvveee Ou)

Apple Weevil.....ssenscossccevaceane
Pear gs
Pear Chermes .....c+0« Soveraresiepe es OO
Plant-louse or Aphia ...........0 665
Vine Scale Insect.........sccscsees 668
WOCUStstscsccseseres sccseuveccerscannenth aa

660

DP il cen

Eri

CHAPTER I.

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.

THE COMPOSITION OF SOILS—THEIR CLASSIFICATION—ANALYSIS—RELATION
BETWEEN THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL—MEANS OF INCREASING THEIR PRODUCT-
IVE POWERS, AND RENDERING THEM FIT FOR CULTIVATION, VIZ.,—ALTER-
ING THE PROPORTION OF THEIR INGREDIENTS—CLEARING—PLOUGHING—
HARROWING — ROLLING— MANURING—DRAINING—IRRIGATING—ROTATION
OF CROPS.

GENERAL REMARKS.

Noruine is more true than the fact, that, from the vague mauner in which
soils are usually described by writers assuming to instruct those who cul-
tivate the soil, it is often difficult for a farmer, who reads accounts of agri-
cultural operations in any other section of the country than that in which he
resides, to judge what relation the soil which is the scene of such oper-
ations bears to that which he himself cultivates. A certain acquaintance
with a few of the plain principles and laws of chemistry in connection with
the composition of soils is, therefore, very desirable; for it is only in the
accuracy in which soils are described, and their composition and character
ascertained and understood, that a knowledge of the best methods of remedy-
ing their defects, and improving them by the application of different matters,
can be acquired. It will be consistent, then, with the design of our work,
to give some account, in the first place, of the

I.—COMPOSITION OF SOILS.

Though various in fertility and texture, all soils are resolvable into the
same constituent parts. They consist of earthy and organic matters in a
state of combination. What is commonly called earth may be considered
in two points of view, either as mixed or unmixed with animal and vegeta-
ble remains. As originally produced from the crumbling or decomposition
of rocks, earth is, of course, destitute of any of these matters; but they very
soon enter into its composition, and exist {n a considerable proportion in all
soils not completely barren.

The principal mineral substances which enter into the composition of
rocks and soils are silica, — found in quartz, flint, and sand; alumina, —a

leading ingredient in the composition of clays, giving them that softness,
(23)

o4 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

plasticity, and adhesiveness, for which they are distinguished ; lime, — con-
stituting the numerous varieties of limestone, marl, chalk, and marble ;
magnesia, — existing in various states of combination with acids and other
earths, and is found in various mineral springs. ‘Thus, where silica prevails,
as in the case of many sands, the earth may be called silicious ; where clay
prevails, the soil may be called aluminous; where lime exists in quantity,
as in the ease of chalk, the soil is caleareous; and where magnesia prevails
to such an extent as to impart its distinctive nature to the soil, it may be
called magnesian. Besides these, there is the oxide of iron, forming a
constituent part of soils, though its influence on their productive powers has
not been definitely ascertained

II. —CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.

Having spoken of the ingredients in soils, we will now classify them
according to their peculiar properties and the kinds of crops they are
severally best adapted to produce. The grand divisions are as follows : —

Clayey Soils. —'These are distinguished for the adhesion of their parts,
and the retention of moisture. Farm lands of this description, — the richer
clays, we mean,—generally produce crops of great abundance and of
superior quality, but at extra cost. Much attention is necessary to the choice
of suitable seasons for conducting the operations of tillage on these soils:
if too dry, it turns up in hard masses, difficult of being made fine enough for
sowing ; and if too wet, it is worked into mortar, and cannot be reduced by
the harrow. At the first ploughing, the clay comes up in large clods ; but
the oftener it is acted upon by the implements of tillage at the proper time,
the more is its cohesion broken, and the more easily can the roots of plants
penetrate. They must be worked when the clods can be crushed by thé
roller.

Sandy Soils. —These are distinguished by their small degree of adhesive-
ness ; and, with the aid of manures and consolidating substances, to counter-
act their poverty and their susceptibility to drought, no land pays better fo
improvement. The richer class of sands is fitted for the production of every
kind of herbage and grain, bulbous and tuberous rooted plants.

Gravelly Soils. — Between the gravelly and sandy soils there is a close
resemblance, both containing a large portion of undecomposed rocky matter.
The loose texture of gravelly soils renders them unfit for the production of
wheat and beans, but they are admirably adapted to barley and oats.

Peaty Soils. — While other soils consist, primarily, of the worn-off
portions of rocks, combined with various animal and vegetable matters, it 1s
otherwise with the peat soils. The matter comprising the soils of this class
varies exceedingly, but in all cases it retains the general characteristics of

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. AS
its origin, from the quantity of the stems and other parts of plants which it
contains, either entire, or in a partial state of decay. At the surface, it may
be fibrous, and of a brownish-gray color ; and lower, it may be friable, of a
light-brown color, and with few fibres. Still lower, it may be compact, of
a deep-brown color. Wherever wood, stems, or grass of any kind, goes to
waste, or falls down and is decomposed, its remains are changed into moss,
if the necessary degree of humidity be present; and, a certain temperature
being essential in producing this change, it is only in the cold and temperate
parts of the earth that peat is formed.

Loam Soils. — Under this denomination is included that kind of soil which
appears to be an intimate mixture of ali the others. It is friable in its com-
position, and neither liable to be parched in summer, nor drenched and chilled
with surface water in winter. It is suitable for every kind of crop, and
every system of husbandry.

III.—ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

The constituent earths being frequently, not only mixed together in an
interminable variety of proportions, but also interspersed with vegetable
and animal debris, an analysis of the soil is the only certain and reliable
mode by which the farmer can ascertain the presence, and amount, of
the different ingredients composing the land which he has, or is about to
put under cultivation. The following is the most simple process by
which a separation and measurement of different earths may be effected:

Fit a cork into one end of a glass tube, three feet long and three-fourths
of an inch in diameter; then half fill it with clear water, and pour into
it a similar quantity of water in which has been mixed as much of the
soil to be examined, as will fill about six inches of the tube. Place the
tube in a vertical position, and let it stand for about one hour. An ex-
amination will then show the earths deposited in the order of sand, clay,
and humus; and the proportion of the latter will indicate the quality of
the soil.

IV.— RELATION BETWEEN THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL.

Clayey Subsoil.—'The value of the soil for agricultural purposes is
affected, in a great degree, by the nature of the subsoil upon which it lies
A retentive, clayey subsoil is in general highly injurious to vegetation ; for,
where the soil rests on a subsoil of this quality, it is constantly soaked with
water, and is tilled with difficulty. The retention of an undue quantity of
moisture diminishes the beneficial action of the manures which have been
applied to the land, and the crops on such soils make but little progress,
Hence, their grain is of inferior quality, and, when in grass, their hertage
is coarse. 3 ,

26 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK

Porous Subsoil.— A porous subsoil absorbs all superfluous moisture,
Below clay, and the different varieties of loam, an open subsoil is partieu-
larly desirable. It is favorable to all the operations of husbandry ; it tends
to correct any undue absorbent power in the soil above; and it promotes the
veneficial action of manures, contributes to the growth and preservation of
seeds in the soil, and insures the future prosperity of the plants. Hence it
is that a thinner soil, with a favorable subsoil, will produce better crops than
a deeper one, resting on wet clay, or on cold or non-absorbent rock.

Quality of Subsoil.— But not only is the soil affected by the depth and
texture of the subsoil, but by its quality. There. are cases when, from
natural revolutions, that which is properly the soil forms the lower stratum
or layer, as, for instance, where the original surface has been covered by the
sand ; but, in general, the lower stratum is far less suited to the nourishment
of plants, and in many cases contains matter which, if too abundant, is
greatly injurious to vegetation.

Depth of the Soil.— Whether the subsoil be retentive or porous, the soil
which rests upon it should be of good depth; and in proportion to that depth
will it be affected by the nature of the subsoil. If a retentive subsoil is
placed very near the surface, not only is the soil too shallow for the purposes
of vegetation, but it is too easily affected by the alternations of dryness and
moisture ; and if, again, a porous subsoil be very near the surface, the roots
of the plants, as in the other case, not only have not sufficient space to
extend themselves, but the moisture of the soil is too easily exhausted by
heat, to the injury of vegetation.

V.—-MEANS OF INCREASING THE PRODUCTIVE POWERS OF SOILS,
AND RENDERING THEM FIT FOR CULTIVATION..

Having now explained the composition, varieties, and qualities of soils, and
the connection between them and the subsoil, or lower strata, we shall pro-
ceed to point out the various means which it is necessary for the farmer to
use, in order to maintain and increase their fertility, and render them fit for
the grand purpose of cultivation. ‘These grand means are as follows : —

1. ALTERING THE ProporTION OF THE DirrERENT INGREDIENTS IN THE
Som.— This is done by ascertaining the composition of the soil, and then
adding to, or subtracting from, the ingredients in which it is deficient, or
with which it superabounds. If a sterile soil is found to contain any of the
salts of iron, or any acid matter, it may be ameliorated by applying quick-
lime. A soil of good apparent texture, containing sulphate of iron, will be
sterile ; but this may be remedied by a top-dressing with lime, which converts
the sulphate into manure. If there be an excess of limy matter in the soil
it may be improved by the application of sand or clay. Soils too abundant

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 27

in sand are benefited by a dressing of clay, marl, or vegetable matter. Light
sands are improved by using peat, and peats by a dressing of sand ; though
the former is in its nature only a temporary improvement. When peats are
acid, or contain iron, limy matter is necessary in bringing them into cultiva-
tion. The best natural soils are those of which the materials have been
derived from different strata or layers of the earth, which have been minutely
divided by air and water, and are intimately blended together; and, in im-
proving soils artificially, the cultivator cannot do better than imitate the
processes of nature. ‘To do this, the necessary materials are seldom far
distant; coarse sand ‘is often near by, and beds of sand and gravel are
common below clay. The labor of improving the texture or constitution of
the soil, by thus changing the character of its ingredients, is repaid by a
great and permanent advantage, —less manure is required, and its fertility
and productiveness insured.

2. Ciearinc. —It is seldom that the operation of altering the proportion
of the different ingredients of the soil can be performed to any extent until
after it has been cleared ; nevertheless, we have chosen this arrangement of

Fig. 1. ig. 2. Fig. 3.

TIM

n: |

our subject, believing it to be the one best adapted to promote the end which
we have in view, namely, 1 plain and intelligible presentation of principles,

facts, and modes ;

98 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

That the chief part of waste and uncultivated lands might be turned to
advantage, is undoubtedly true. Land covered with furz; the soil of
ancient forests, overrun with this plant, or covered by stagnant water ; those
moving sands, which are often carried from place to place, in some sections
of the country, by the wind; neglected tracts, which yield nvthing at all,
or, at most, but a scanty return; in short, almost all kinds of land are sus-
ceptible of some kind of tillage, and capable of yielding certain varieties
of produce. But operations of this nature are not always attended with
profit, the land often costing as much, or more, in the end, as it would
have been necessary to give for such as was already in a state of cultivation.

Definite Plan of Operations. — The first thing to be done is carefully to
determine on the manner in which the land about to be cleared can best be
turned to account ; then to lay down a plan of operation, drawn up with due
regard to the nature of the soil and the ends proposed to be derived from it ;
and, finally, to precisely and perseveringly adhere to such plan. It is im-
portant that the improvement of the land should be commenced at that part
which is most capable of being converted into meadow or pasture ground,
even though it should be determined to submit this land to the plough at
some future period ; by so doing, a supply of manure will be insured, and
the fertility of those portions of land afterwards cleared will be increased.

Clearing Forests. —It is upon the soil of forests that operations of this
nature are usually performed, and it is upon such soils that they are attended

with the greatest advantages and success, both as regards the person by
whom they are undertaken, and society in general. The soil of forest land

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. ; A!)

generally contains a sufficient quantity of nutritious matter to enable it
to produce both crops of fodder and of corn, even without being manured
with dung; and, consequently, will yield an immediate return for the
expenses of clearing, without being exhausted by so doing.

The extirpation of trees and bushes often requires a great deal of labor;
and, to do it more easily, several machines have been invented. Useless
shrubs are readily cut down, and serve for fuel. Their roots are seldom
difficult to grub up; a simple and very powerful instrument for this pur-
pose is a very strong iron three-pronged fork, the prongs twenty inches
long, and a strong handle, twenty feet long, fixed firmly into it, to the
end of which a rope is fastened ; this is driven slantwise under the roots,
and, by means of a log as a fulcrum, it forms a lever when pulled down
by the ropes. Figure 4 represents this instrument; and the succeeding
cut is that of an implement now much used for the same purpose, the
claws being attached to the bush close to the ground, and, by means of
cattle fastened to it by a chain, the bushes or roots are easily drawn.

Fig. 5.

Trees, however, must be grubbed up by the roots, and old stumps must
be taken out of the ground entirely, before the land can be brought into
a proper condition for profitable tillage. This has always heretofore been
a work of toil and difficulty ; but a good invention, which isa very simple
application of lever-power, has so much facilitated this operation, that a
piece of ground may now be cleared of trees and stumps with as little
trouble, and less exertion, than was formerly required for the eradication
of small bushes. The machine by which this is effected (Willis’s Stump
Extractor), is represented as very effective.

Clearing Waste Lands.—Next to the soil of forests, raako lands and
common pasturages most generally require to be cleared. Land of this
description is usually in a very disordered condition, the surface being
not only rugged and uneven, but frequently covered with stumps of
trees, bushes, &. After disposing of these, plough with a broad sharp
share. After some time, a strong harrow should be used,

“SAO UENO
Le

ea
Sate Pe

FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Fig. 6.

THE KIRBY MOWER

We give this to the reader, as a specimen of one of the many dozen
labor-saving implements of the day.

of its kind,

chasers.

It is said to be an excellent article

and worthy of the attention and scrutiny of would-be pur-

SOILS THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. il

ww AN Si

AUTOMATIC IRON BEAM REVERSIBLE, OR SWIVEL PLOW.

It may not be amiss before going into further details to call attention
to the fact that there are very many plows offered for sale, of more or
less excellence. We shall not advocate the claims of any of them,
but merely give one or two pictures of the most advanced and improved
kinds. Every farmer must use his senses and judge from his own ex-
perience or that of his neighbors which are the best articles, not merely
on general theoretic principles, but on practical grounds, and adapta-

bility to the particular soil or crops he desires to use a plow for.

32 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Additional about Clearing Waste Lands.—The litter of boughs,
twigs, brambles, and such waste- stuff must be carefully heaped to-
gether. Then the soil will be found partly covered with tangled roots

and fibres, and these must be burned. A bramble-hook, like that above, is
also frequently used in cutting brush or brambles.

Paring and Burning. — Comparative experiments prove that paring and
burning is one of the best methods employed in clearing uncultivated lands
of a marly nature, though many disapprove of the practice. The operation
consists in paring off the turf toa depth of two or three inches, — generally by
a breast-plough, worked by hand, or by a turf-paring plough, drawn by +

Fig. 8.

= fil i

horse, — allowing it to dry, and then burning it in heaps. ‘The result is a
mixture of burned earth, charred vegetable fibre, and the ashes of that part
which is entirely consumed, thus producing a powerful manure, impregnated
with alkaline salts and carbonaceous matter, which, it is well known, are
very powerful promoters of vegetation. Insects are also killed by the pro-
cess. It is very easy to ascertain whether any soi] will be improved or not
by paring and burning. A few sods may be taken and exposed to heat in an
iron pot closely covered over; the heat should net be so intense as to pro-
duce light, but should be kept up for a considerable time, till the sods are
consumed. If the ashes are red, and the whole is a fine powder, with par-
ticles of charcoal in it, the soil from which it was taken may be safely pared
and burned, especially if it forms a mud with water, and the earth is not
readily deposited. But if it feels gritty, lets the water readily through, and
soon settles when mixed with it, burning will not be advantageous.
Leveling Uneven Surfaces. — Frequently, when the surface of newly-
cleared land is uneven, it is necessary, in the first place, to smooth and level

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 33

it, in order to cultivate it more easily. When the inequalities of the sur-
face cannot be reduced by a more simple process, it may be done, when the
soil is loose and sandy, by an instrument like the following ; or by another,
which is much used in Flanders, consisting of a wooden shovel, shod with
iron, and having a long handle; about the middle of this shovel, which is
convex, are two hooks, one on each side, to which chains are fixed, which
unite at the bar, to which the traces of a horse or horses are to be attached ;
a rope fixed to the end of the handle completes the instrument. A man
accustomed to the use of it raises the handle, and the shovel enters the
ground, and is filled by the horse going on. By depressing the handle, the
Joad is made to slide on the rounded bottom of the shovel, till it arrives at the
place where it is to be deposited. By letting the handle go, retaining the

Fig. 9.

rope, the whole is upset instantly, turning over on the edge; the handle
strikes on the bar, and the load is left behind in a heap. By pulling the

rope, the whole instrument resumes its original position, and is brought back
to the place from which the earth is to be taken again, without any loss of

34 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

time, or the slightest stoppage of the horses. About five cwts. of loose
earth may be thus moved at each time. This instrument is seen in
the preceding cut.

Removing Stones. —'The removal of large stones often increases the dit
ficulty of clearing an uncultivated soil to a considerable extent ; and yet they
must be removed, at least, as far below the surface of the soil as the plough
penetrates in its course, otherwise it is wholly impossible to till the ground
properly. When they cannot be used for any valuable purpose, they may
be sunk into the ground to a depth at which they will not interfere with any
of the operations of agriculture. For this purpose, a trench deeper than the
stone itself is dug all around it, and it is laid in the hollow thus formed.
The width and depth of this hollow must be greater than the breadth and
depth of stone, and its shape must be so contrived that the stone, when
turned over, may not present either of its angles or edges to the ground.
Very large stones must be blasted, especially if they are going to be used in
building. The most useful mode of conducting this operation consists in
the use of gunpowder; but it should be done by those who understand the
operation, and with proper instruments. Another method consists in heat-
ing the stone to a high degree, by means of a fierce fire applied to one part
of it only, which will cause it to expand. When the stone has been thus
made intensely hot, water is poured upon it to make it crack, the effect
being increased by powerful blows given with very heavy hammers. A
third method consists in piercing the stone in the direction of its veins, and
introducing into the hole a cleft cylinder of iron, and then driving a wedge
of the same metal in between the two halves of the cylinder. Finally, a
yuantity of water may, during the winter season, be introduced into a hole
made in the stone to a sufficient depth, the aperture to be then closed with
a stopper closely driven into it. The water contained in this hole, ex-
panding as it freezes, exerts a force sufficient to break in pieces the strong-
est stone.

3. PLoveuinc. — Ploughing is justly considered the most important of

Fig. 11.

Mii
SD

aut

agricultural operations, as on the manner in which this is performed
depends the facility of executing all succeeding operations on the same piece

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 35

of land. The plough acts as a wedge, separating a portion of the soil, and
turning it over at the same time. The manual operation of holding the
plough in a proper position, and directing the horses or cattle which draw
it at the same time, is only to be acquired by experience; when once
attained, it is, perhaps, the most agreeable and healthful of agricultural
exercises, the body being kept upright, tle arms and legs brought into
action, and also the eye and the mind, to keep the furrow straight and of
regular width and depth, and the voice to speak to the animals.

In the performance of this operation it is requisite,

« First. That the lines traced by the plough should be perfectly straight and
parallel with one another ; the furrow slices all equal, and uniformly turned
up, so that they may not overlap each other, or form any inequalities on the
surface of the ground. If the slices are not of equal breadth, the operation
becomes more difficult, because at every deviation from the straight line the
resistance which the earth opposes to the instrument becomes increased.

Second. That the plough advance at a regular and uniform depth, and
on a line parallel to the surface of the soil; that is to say, that it do not, as
is the case when it is not well guided, sometimes cut thick and at others
thin slices.

Third. That the plough empty the furrow as completely as possible, so
that the earth may not fall in again, after the instrument has passed; and
that the portion of soil not yet raised, but which has just been divided by
the ploughshare, may form not an acute, but a right angle with the bottom
of the furrow on which it borders

Fourth. That the furrow-slice be turned up at an angle of about 40
degrees, or so as to form with the surface of the ground, or the bottom of
the furrow, an angle of from 40 to 50 degrees, which is in most cases the
best inclination.

Fifth. That the divided slices be always of the same breadth; and that
it be such as is required by the nature of the soil itself, and the purpose of
the operation.

Sixth. That they likewise preserve the depth which it is desirable to
give them.

Seventh. That the ridges or heaps of earth between the furrows be of a
suitable length and breadth, and that their sides be parallel to one anothier,
so that they may not terminate in a point; for such a form tends to increase
the labor of ploughing considerably, by rendering it necessary to turn fre-
quently.

Eighth. That the ploughs be placed one after another, on different parts
of the land to be ploughed, so that the operation may be executed in the best
possible order, and with as little loss of time as possible.

36 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Ninth. ‘That the horses or cattle be harnessed as near to the plough as
they can be placed without retarding their free and easy movement; for the
nearer they are to the point of draught, the less exertion will be required to
overcome the resistance.

Tenth. That when ploughing with a pair abreast, the most powerful
horse should be worked in the furrow ; but, if the team be harnessed in line,
and there be any difference in the height of the cattle, the tallest should be
put foremost, if he be in every respect equal to the other.

Eleventh. That, when at work, they should be kept going at as regular
and good a pace as the nature of the work will permit; for they are thus
more manageable, and the draught easier, than when slow. By attending to
this, the heavy soil will cling less to the coulter, and the land will work
more freely.

Twelfth. That, the breadth and depth of the furrow being ascertained, the
plough should be held upright, bearing equally all along on a straight sole,
and be made to move forward in a regular line, without swerving to either
side. The edge of the coulter should be set directly forward, so that the
land-side of it may run in a parallel line with the land-side of the head, and
in such a position that their slant or sweep may exactly correspond.

Thirteenth. ‘That the ploughman should walk with his body as nearly as
possible upright, without leaning on the stilts, and without using force to
any part, further than may be absolutely necessary to keep the implement
steadily in a straight line. He should also be sparing of his voice, and of
correction to the team: of the former, because too much cheering and order-
ing only confuse the cattle, and because punishment, when often repeated,
at length loses its effect.

How to hold the Plough. — In ploughing, the instrument ought to be held
vertically. If it is inclined to the left-hand side, the same work is per-
formed in appearance, though not in reality, a portion of the ground below
not being tilled at all, but left thus:

Fig. 12.

Construction of the Plough. —In the construction of ploughs, whatever
be the sort used, there are a few general principles that ought invariably
to be attended to; such as the giving the throat and breast — or that part
which enters, perforates, and breaks up the ground — that sort of long, nar-
row, clean, tapering, sharpened form, that affords the least resistance in
passing through the land; and to the mould-board that kind of hollowed out
and twisted form, which not only tends to lessen friction, but also to con-

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 37

tribute greatly to the perfect turning over of the furrow-slice. The beam
and muzzle should also be so contrived as that the moving power, or tear,

Fig. 13.

may be attached in the most advantageous line of draught. With such an
instrument, the farmer can cultivate his land to advantage.

Depth of Ploughing.— This depends on the kind of crop to be cultivated,
and other circumstances. In the field, all that can be arrived at is a kind
of approximation to the true proportions. When the sods are considerably
too wide in proportion to their depth, the ploughman will be admonished
of this by their lying too flat, and too slightly overlapping one another.
When their depth is considerably too great in proportion to their width,
they will stand too upright, and be apt to fall back again into the furrow.
‘The medium depth of good ploughing may be held to be seven inches, but
this varies, according to the kind of crop to be cultivated, and the nature
of the soil. The plough with lock coulter, wheel, and draft-rod, like the
annexed, is most suitable for deep ploughing.

oi Me

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=
ZZ gor

Ridges. — The first operation in the forming of ridges is striking the fur-
rows. Let it be supposed that a field has been laid level by previous
ploughings, and that the marks of former ridges being obliterated, the tines
of the new ones are to be laid out. ‘The usual breadth of ridges is from
15 to 18 feet, and sometimes more. We may assume, in the following
descriptions, fifteen feet to be the width of the ridges.

4 :

88 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Let a steady ploughman be furnished with three or more poles of wood,
shod with iron, 8 or 9 feet in length, and divided into feet or half feet.
The first operation is to mark off, at two sides of the field, what is termed a
head-land. This is merely a ridge formed parallel to the side of the field,
on which the horses are to turn ; to afford sufficient space for which, these
ridges may be 18 feet wide. The lines of them are marked off before
the other ridges, in order that the ploughman may know, on arriving at the
end of the ridge, when to turn his horses. After the rest of the field is
ploughed, the headlands themselves are ploughed, and formed into ridges.

In the following diagram (Fig. 15), representing a field, let EF, GH,
represent the lines of the headlands, drawn parallel to a B and c¢ D, the
sides or boundaries of the field, and at the distance from each of these sides
of 15 teet. These lines the ploughman marks out by running a straight
furrow with his plough, parallel to the two sides.

Let him now, beginning at the side of the field a p, parallel to which it
is intended to run the ridges, measure off with his pole & a, 74 feet. At
the point a, let him place one of his poles. This is the point at which he
is to enter his plough. But, leaving his horses, in the mean time, let him
walk on to a convenient distance, as to 1, and there, in like manner measur-
ing off 1 5, 74 feet, let him set up his second pole at 4; and then, at the
further end of the field, on the line of the headland, at c, let him place his
third pole. He has now three poles placed in a line; but if, from the length
of the field, or inequalities of the surface, more than three poles are neces-
sary, more must be used, as there must be so many poles in sight as that
the ploughman may be enabled to direct his plough, by means of them, in a
straight line. He now returns to his plough, and enters it at the first pole,
at a, keeping the other two poles in a line, so that he may be enabled to
plough directly towards them. Having entered his plough at a, he stops
his horses, and measures off 15 feet to d, where he plants the pole. He
then returns to his plough, which is standing at a, and drives his horses,
keeping the two poles before him as a guide, to the second pole, b. Having
done this, and leaving his plough standing at 5, he measures off from 0 to e,
15 feet, and there he plants his pole. He then returns to his plough, and
proceeds forward, making his furrow in a straight line, to the last pole, c,
where, in like manner, he stops his horses, and, measuring off 15 feet, he
plants his pole at /f.

In this manner he has placed _ his poles in a straight line, at the distance
of 15 feet from their last position, and parallel, as before, to the line of the
fence. He now turns his horses sharp about, and returns by the furrow
which he has just drawn,cba. By this second ploughing he throws the
earth out in an opposite direction, so that he has formed a completely open

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT, 39

furrow. In returning, he takes care to correct any inequality or crookednexss
that may have taken place through the unsteady motion of the horses in his
first track.

The poles being now placed ina line, de f, he brings his plough to d,
enters it, and stops it there. He measures off 15 feet with his pole, from
d to g, and fixes his pole at g; and then he proceeds with his plough to e
and f, repeating the same operation with his poles as before, and returning
by the track of his last-made furrow, from f tod. In this manner he pro-
ceeds throughout the whole field, forming parallel open furrows, at the dis-
tance from each other of 15 feet. These furrows are to form the centres of
the future ridges.

The field is now prepared for being ploughed into ridges, and the manner
of doing so is this : —

The ploughman, beginning at the left-hand side of the open furrow,
ploughs his first furrow-slice towards it. He then, returning by the oppo-
site side, performs the same operation, causing the first two furrow-slices tu
rest upon each other. ‘Thus, in forming his first ridge, he begins at the side
of a, and, ploughing in the direction from a to c, he turns his first furrow-
slice into the open furrow ac. When he arrives at c, he turns his plough
right about, and returning from c to a, he lays his second furrow-slice upon
the first one, as at c, Fig. 16.

In this manner he continues, always turning to the right-hand side, and
laying his furrow-slices towards the centre of the ridge, until he has reached

40 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the boundary of the ridge = H, on the one side, and the line v s, half-way
hetween c a and d f, on the other. He has thus formed a ridge, of which
¢ ais the crown or centre, and H £ and os the termination. By proceed-
ing in this manner throughout the field, the whole is formed into ridges, of
which the first-marked furrows are the centres.

It has been said that the ploughman continues turning his horses to the
right, and that thus, after having proceeded from a to c, he returns from c to
a, and so on, always ploughing around ac, as a central line. When, how-
ever, he has proceeded from a to c, he may turn his horses left about, and
return from / to d, and so on, always laying his furrow-slices towards ac
and fd, respectively. In this manner he will have ploughed the half of two
adjoining ridges, and terminated at the space o s, half-way between them.
This method, it will appear, has the same effect as turning the horses right
about, and is the most convenient in practice.

In Figure 16, in which cc, cc, cc, are the centres of the ridges, the
manner in which the successive furrow-slices have been laid upon each
other is shown.

By this laying of the earth towards the centres, the ridges acquire a cer-
tain curvature. By ploughing the earth away from the intervals a B, DF,
FG, H1, the ground is hollowed at these parts, which now form the open
furrows. It is by these open furrows that the water which falis upon the
surface finds a passage.

mill
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Mh H ii i | \
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en

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JU Mey

A certain, though not a great, degree of curvature, is given to the ridge by
this ploughing. It is frequently, however, necessary to give it a yet greater
degree of curvature and elevation. ‘This is done by ploughing the whole
nudge a second time, and in a similar manner.

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 41

Gathering. —'The plough is first driven along the centre of the ridge
from c to c, forming an open furrow. Successive furrow-slices are then
laid towards this furrow, in the same manner as in the previous ploughing.
This is done with the successive furrow-slices, until the plough reaches
the open furrows a B, DE, FG, HI. In this manner the whole ridge is
ploughed, and an increased elevation and curvature given to it. ‘his
operation is termed gathering.

In performing the operation of gathering, it is important that the ridge be
formed with a uniform curvature, so that it shall not have what is techni-
cally termed a shoulder, or hollow part, on each side of the crown. It is to
prevent this defect that the open track is made along the crown, before the
first two slices are laid together; by which means the ploughman is better
enabled to lay them upon each other in such a manner that they shall not
overlap and form a protuberance at the crown of the ridge. A transverse
section of the ridges, when gathered, will appear thus :

Fig. 17.

RRRLISISSSO KALLA SSID LRLALAI, SSW KLAR

B Cc E Cc G Cc I c

Casting. — A ridge being already formed, it may be wished to plough it
again, and yet to preserve it at the same curvature and elevation. In this
case, the plough is to enter at the open furrow, and to lay the successive
furrow-slices towards it, until the two adjoining edges are ploughed. By
this means, all the slices of the same ridge lie in the same direction, and the
curvature and elevation of the whole remain as before. This operation is
termed casting, and the manner in which the furrow-slices rest upon each
otner will appear in the following cut.

Fig. 18.
D c E Cc G Cc I Cc

In the operation of casting, two methods may be pursued. The first two
furrow-slices, as those of & and 1, may be laid resting on each other, as in
Fig. 18, in which case the two ridges will be formed, as it were, into one
large ridge; or else the open furrows at = and 1 may be preserved by
keeping the first two furrow-slices ata little distance from each other, and
preserving the space between them, as in Fig. 19.

When land is ploughed in this manner, the ground is taken from one
side of each two adjoining ridges at c, and laid towards the other, & and 1;

that is, it is gathered towards one side and gathered from the other. In
4%

42 FARMER S HAND-BOOK.

this manner, the ground at the open furrow c, from which we gather,
becomes more bare of earth than the open furrows & and 1, towards which

Fig. 19.

SESSA _ 227 WVPZLO-- SEERA LE
B Cc E Cc G Cc I c

we gather. When, therefore, we wish to cast a ridge twice in succession,
we reverse the former mode of ploughing; we gather towards the open
furrow c, and from the open furrows er and 1, and thus the ridge is restored
to its former state.

Cleaving. —In this operation, the plough commences at the open furrow,
lays the first slice towards it, and then returning by the other side of the
open furrow, lays the second slice upon the first, as in the following figure.
When it has reached the centre, it stops, and begins with another pair of _
ridges, and ploughs the half of each pair together in the same manner. In
this way the open furrows of the ridges become the centres, and the former
centres become the open furrows. When we wish to level a ridge, we
cleave it.

Fig. 20.
B Cc E Cc G Cc I c

Cross Ploughing. — This, as the term denotes, is ploughing ina direc-
tion crossing that of the former ridges and furrows. The workmen place
themselves at equal distances from one another, as thirty or forty yards, at
the side of the field at which they are to begin to plough. Each then runs
a straight furrow across the field, as from a to D, from B to £, from c to
r. Each then returns, as from p to A, from £ to B, from F to c, laying
always the successive furrow-slices towards the right hand, until each man
arrives at the termination of his allotted space, rv, av, az, xx. There has
been thus formed, by each workman, one great ridge, but so extended that
it may be said to be without curvature. ‘The ploughmen, we perceive, turn
from left to right, around the first furrows a 0, B E, c F. But they may
also turn from right to left. Thus, in going from B to g, the ploughman
lays his first furrow-slice to the right hand. When he arrives at £, he
may turn his horses left about, and proceed to p, and, returning from pD to
A, lay his first furrow-slice to the right hand towards p a. ‘Turning left
about, then, at a, he proceeds in the direction & kr, and so on, always turning
left about until he has arrived at the middle space 0, when the whole space
between aD and g & will have been ploughed. Sometimes, for conven-

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 43

ience and the saving of distance, he may plough, in the first place, around the
central line B &, by turning from left to right, and then plough the remainder
' of the interval by turning from right to left.

Fig. 21.
Zz a
A D
z h
B E
& £
c F
& x

These are matters of detail, somewhat difficult, perhaps, to be described
clearly, but so simple in themselves, that they need only be seen in the field
to be thoroughly understood.

Subsoil Ploughing. — Loosening the subsoil by a plough, without turning

it, has been strongly recommended, of late years, as a great improvement in
tillage. A heavy plough is first run along the field some six or eight inches
deep, and a subsoil plough (see Fig. 22) follows in the bottom of the

44 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

furrow, deepening it to fourteen or sixteen inches in all. This differs from
trench ploughing, in which the subsoil is cast up and mixed with the sur-
face, by which the soil is either benefited or injured, according to the
nati.re of the subsoil. The principal effect of subsoil ploughing is, that the
earth is deepened to a considerable depth, and root culture is much im-
proved ; the soil is also considerably drained, and if moor-pans exist in it, may
be reclaimed from sterility. It is, therefore, a useful process in stiff soil
imperfectly drained, but, in loose gravelly or sandy soils, subsoil ploughing
is often very injurious.

Fallowing. —In support of fallowing, it has been urged, that by no other
management has land produced so much corn — so much human food, which
ought to be the great object; that the work required in the operation is at a
time of year when no pressing demand for labor exists, when there is often
little or nothing for men or horses to execute; that the land ean be effectu-
ally prepared for an early sowing of wheat, which is very desirable ; and that
if fallowing (we now refer to complete summer fallows) were to be super-
seded by spring or early green crops, a greater number of teams on any
given extent of farm would be required to get through the work in proper
season; and that the transition from this practice, where it is regularly
established, would be highly inconvenient.

Fallows are of two kinds, — the entire or naked fallow, and the half fallow.
In proportion to the progress of green-crop culture will be the relinquish-
ment of the system of entire summer fallowing, which, after a farm has been
once put into proper order, and with a regular rotation of ameliorating and
cleansing crops, alternating with grain crops, is quite unnecessary. Unless
on the first occupation of an exhausted and dirty farm, and without the means

of manuring for fallow crops, the system of an entire summer fallowing is
indefensible. Even on the strongest clay land, good, deep, and very early
autumnal ploughing, with the subsequent spring culture well executed, and
manure, ought to be sufficient for the production of crops. If the soil be
of too tenacious a quality for turnips, it will vield potatoes, beans, or cab-
bages, and the horse-hoeing process will render it friable, and fit for the
ensuing crop of wheat.

The full benefit of fallowing lies in loosening the adhesive particles of soil,
and in the admission of air, so essential to vegetation; in suppressing, for a
season, the productive powers and energies of the earth, and in destroying
the vitality of weeds, and dissolving them altogether, by exposure to the in-
fluence of the sun and atmosphere ; but all these effects may be produced by
half-fallowing and green-crop culture. On friable soil there is no excuse
for the former kind of fallowing, whatever may be urged in favor of the
practice on strong chalky or clayey land. The number of ploughings and

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 45

harrowings must be regulated by the nature of the soil. Four good plough.
ings, (exclusive of the first in the preceding autumn,) and as many har-
rowings, ought to suffice for the most stubborn soils. If a fallow crop —
suppose turnips —is to be put into the ground, three summer ploughings
ought to suffice.

Why is it that one good, thick-standing crop is always followed by
another? Why is lea-wheat better if the clover has been mowed twice than
if it had been depastured? Why is land found to be in better heart after a
heavy green crop than it is after bearing a white crop?’ The answer to all
these questions is the same, namely, the soil has been completely shaded
from the summer's sun. Ifa heap of stones be suffered to lie on a fallow
field throughout the summer, and be not removed till seed-time, the spot will
not only be visible by a much stronger growth of corn in the first, but for
several years afterwards. Add to this what was said by an agricultural
philosopher, that if he could cover his fallow fields for the whole summer
with boards, his next crop would be doubled. But there are many circum-
stances which may affect the surface of some soils differently from others.
A thick crop of tares or of clover makes the surface moist and mellow when
ploughed up, and thus may be beneficial to the seed sown immediately ; but
there is a certain benefit to a heavy soil, arising from exposure to the dews
and a warm sun, which cannot be denied, and which often equals a coat of
manure.

In all cases of fallow, the first ploughing should be given immediately
after harvest, and as deep as the quality of the soil will permit, with a
strong team, if the land be very stiff and retentive of water ; and in all cases
the field should be well ridged and deeply furrowed. Immediately after the
stirring time of spring-work is over, if fallow crops are to be sown, the
second ploughing is to take place, and in the same direction with the former
one, lest, by cross-ploughing, a fall of rain should stagnate on the surface ;
but in light soils a ctoss-ploughing is preferable, even at this early time.
The third ploughing should be executed in June, and at this time always
across the original direction of the ridges; harrowing with a heavy break,
if the land require it, should regularly succeed the summer ploughing,
(with rolling, if necessary,) and the harrowing is to be executed by repeated
double turns, crossing those of the previous ones, until the land is sufficiently
pulverized to admit of the easy collection ot weeds, with the harrow, the
couch-rake, or prongs.

It is of great importance, at this period of the summer-fallow, to drag to
the surface and collect as large a portion as possible of the roots of vivacious
weeds in the ground; for this being the period of active vegetation, every

46 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

part of these roots which is left in the ground will grow again and extend
itself.

4. Harrowine. — In conducting this operation, the harrows pass over the
ridge either longitudinally or across. At the end of the ridge they are

Fig. 23.

turned, and generally pass again over the same ground. This is called a
double turn of the harrows. When they do not return over the same -
ground, but pass to another space, they are said to give a single turn.
When land is to be pulverized and cleaned of root-weeds, the operation
consists of repeated double turns of the harrows in different directions. The
root-weeds, being dragged to the surface, are collected by the hand, and
carried off the ground or burned. The plough prepares the ground for the
action of the harrow, and the plough and the harrow acting by turns, the land
is pulverized and cleaned.

Besides the cleaning of the ground, a purpose in harrowing is to cover the
seeds of the cultivated plants. The number of harrowings to be given for
this end depends on the state of the ground and other circumstances. When
the surface is matted together by the roots of plants, as in the case of land
ploughed when in grass, repeated double turns are required to cover the
seeds in a proper manner.

The operation of harrowing is best performed when the land is dry.
Harrowing when the land is wet is to be avoided, both on account of the
less efficiency of the operation, and of the injury done to the ground by the

SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 47

treading of the cattle. In the case of covering seeds, however, in unfavorable
seasons, it is often necessary to harrow the ground when in a wet state. In
extreme cases of this kind, the practice has been sometimes resorted to of
uttaching several harrows to a bear) stretching across the ridge, and causing
the animals to walk in the open furrows.

There are several kinds of harrows in use; but the Geddes pattern, rep-
resented below, is, by many, considered superior. The Scotch harrow is
exhibited in the cut immediately preceding the one below.

Fig. 24.

My
Yj

)
g

.
‘
.
Y
.
.
e

5. Rotuine. — This operation, which, however, should not be atternpted
when the land is so wet as to clog the roller, is highly conducive to the
vegetation of crops — especially wheat — by reducing the rough parts of the
surface to a mouldered state, and thus earthing up the stems of the plants
while it renders the surface level and compact. Its use, in closely compress-
ing the particles of earth on light, sandy soils, by excluding cold wind or a
pasch’ny sun from the roots of young corn, is extremely great, and may be

48 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

repeatedly performed to grain crops in the spring months, as long as it can
be continued without breaking the stems. A heavy roller is essential to the
success of corn in tenacious soils, by closing up the fissures which dry
weather occasions, and is useful for breaking down clods on fallows, in aid
of the harrow, which then more easily separates them, and disengages
weeds, bringing them to the surface.

If the roller be heavy, —as it ought to be, in order to be really useful, —
and require two horses, they should not be in line, unless the roller be
constructed with only single shafts; independently of the disadvantageous
application of power in this case, the trampling of eight legs, instead of four,
in the same track, will make, under particular circumstances, impressions
which the roller will not so readily remove as if only the footsteps of a
single horse in the track were irabedded. This is, of course, perfectly
immaterial in preparing fallows for the succeeding plough and harrow,
hough it may be of some wei(»t in the case of sown crops, where the
éurface is not to be stirred age a.

On grass lands heavy rolling is highly efficacious, particularly if the
surface has been rendered uneven by the treading of cattle, or by any other
causes. On dry, absorbent land, when under grass, rolling will be most use-
ful after rain, if not so immoderate as to cause injury from the feet of the
animals during the process; and the earlier in the morning the better, in
order to destroy vermin. Meadows are served by rolling immediately after
the hay 1s removed, in order to press the seeds that had been diffused over

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 49

the surface into the earth, and thus promote their vegetation. The usual
way of moving the roller, is to begin at one end of the field, and to leave at
each bouting au interval precisely of the breadth of the roller, (in order to
allow a sufficient sweep for the roller in each turning, without injuring the
head-rig by tearing it, or distressing the horses,) and alternately to roll]
these intervening portions. When the land is in ridges, the rolling should
be across them.

The box which is seen attached to the roller represented on the preceding
page, is to receive stones, &c., picked up in the field, and also for giving
weight to the roller according to the work required.

6. Manurine. — This important subject will be treated of in its relation
to the composition of manures and their application to the different soils.

Action of Manures. — Manure acts upon the soil in two ways: First, by
communicating to, it those juices which are calculated for the nutrition of
plants and vegetables ; and, secondly, by the chemical action which it exer-
cises on those substances contained in the soil, decomposing them, and
re-combining them under new forms, and thus facilitating their introduction
into the suckers of plants ; and, perhaps, also by communicating that degree
of energy and activity to vegetation, which enables it to take up and appro-
priate the suitable nutritive juices.

Natural Manures. — All animal bodies, as dead carcasses, flesh, intestines,
the refuse of the shambles, &c., when in a state of putrefaction, may be
converted into manure; and manures thus formed are far more active than
any other. Yet, in general, the excrements and urine of animals, obtained
from them while living, are set aside for manure, because a large quantity
ean thus be procured, and at much less cost. It is found very advantageous
to mix these excrementitious substances with the remains of vegetable
matters, for by this means the latter are made to putrefy more rapidly, and
do not lose so much of their actual substance, while, also, the fermentation
of the animal bodies, which would otherwise be carried on with too great
rapidity, is somewhat retarded. Manures thus formed are called “ natural
manures,”’ in order to distinguish them from others which are termed ‘ arti-
ficial.’? Besides, they are the kind best known, and, indeed, among many
persons, are the only description which is known and used,

Those excrements which are voided by animals through the intestinal
eanal are composed not only of the food which they have taken, and of that
portion of its filaments which could not be decomposed, but also of minute
particles of the body of the animal itself, which are deposited in the
intestinal eanal after having performed their office. They consequently
may be said to be entirely composed of animalized substances, and, even in
animals fed almost entirely on vegetables, will be found to possess more of

5 D

50 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the animal than the vegetable nature. ‘The properties of the dung, however
depend, to a certain extent, on the manner in which the beasts are fed, and
their condition and breed. Hence arises the striking difference which
exists between the dung yielded by cattle put up to fatten, or which are in a
good state of keeping, and that which is voided by lean, badly-fed animals.

Urine. —It is generally customary to mix urine with the solid excrements.
This liquid, which is, in fact, composed chiefly of water, likewise contains a
substance which is peculiar to itself, and various other very active matters,
particularly ammonia. ‘These matters are most beneficial when mixed up
with the solid excrements, and collected by means of litter, or of substances
peculiarly adapted for the purpose, which substances decompose one another,
and give rise to the formation of new compounds. Common manure is com-
posed of these two kinds of excrements, and of those vegetable substances
which are used as litter, as straw, fern, or dry leaves, —chiefly the first of
these three. ‘This mixture is commonly termed stable-manure.

The Various Kinds of Excrement.— When horse-dung, in a proper state
of moisture, is exposed to air of a moderate temperature, it soon enters into
fermentation ; and if it is not watered, instead of assuming the form of a
thick paste or black-butter, as it is called, it becomes powdery, and wastes
away, leaving scarcely anything but ashes behind. Manure produced by
horn-cattle also begins to ferment very soon, provided that it is close and
sniform in consistence, and contains only its proper moisture ; but its fer-
mentation is less rapid than that of horse-dung, and, therefore, requires no
watering, and does not waste away. Its effect on land is also more lasting,
though Jess rapid. When placed in the soil, it does not appear to produce
any very sensible increase of the temperature, and on this account it is
adapted peculiarly for the manuring of warm soils. Sheep-dung, when kept
in a compact heap, decomposes rapidly ; but where it is loosely heaped, it
decomposes much more slowly. When placed in the soil, or dropped
upon it by the sheep, it produces a speedy and energetic effect, often-
times giving too much vigor to the first crop, when it is used abundantly.
The quality of pigs’-dung depends greatly on the kind of food they consume,
also on the manner of collecting it. If the liquid portion of the excrements
are mixed with the straw in such a manner as to prevent any running off,
and the dung is placed in a situation favorable to its decomposition, a very
active compound is produced. Poultry-dung can be obtained generally only
in small quantities, but it is very active, and of great value. It is very differ-
ent from that of quadrupeds, and contains a peculiar substance, mainly
resembling the white of an egg. This kind of manure, in order to have its
due effect on the soil, must be divided as minutely as possible, and be spread
over the ground, without burying or covering it up.

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 51

Night-Soil.— Human excrements, or night-soil, make a very active ma-
nure. The best way of using it is to form it into a kind of compost, by
mixing it with other substances, and especially by making it into heaps with
turf, and adding a small quantity of burnt lime. By mixing and mingling
it thoroughly with these substances, it loses its fetid odor, and should then
be spread over the ground, without covering or burying. A powerful manure
is manufactured from night-soil, called poudrette, on account of its form being
that of a powder.

Management of Manures.— Dung should be left in the stable as long as
possible, for its quality is thereby improved. But it should not be done at

Fig. 26. Fig. 27.

the expense of the cleanliness and comfort of the cattle, or keeping the stable
dry. If the dung is suffered to remain under the cattle, great care must be
taken that it does not collect in larger quantities under their hind than
under their fore feet, for that would keep them in an unnatural attitude.

In ordinary circumstances, it is more convenient to mingle the different
species of dung uniformly in the heap, so that the defects of one sort of
manure may correct those of another; and the result will be a regular and
well-digested compound.

As to the time when manure should be carted into the fields, and the state
in which the manure should be, it is pretty well ascertained that manure
should not be removed whilst in a high state of fermentation. because at that

52 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

period an important part of some of its most active properties would evapo-
rate; but before fermentation has commenced, or after it has subsided,
it appears to lose little by exposure to air, beyond what it regains in
another manner.

There are visible advantages attending the spreading upon the land fresh
strawy manure, and to leave it till the ploughings of spring commence,
taking care, however, that the water does not wash away the juices, and
carry them beyond the field, but that it merely allows them to penetrate the
earth. This method of covering the soil during winter renders it much
more friable, and remarkably fertile.

The practice of leaving the manure on the land in small heaps, as it is
unloaded from the carts, is not judicious. The decomposition will be very
irregular, the valuable gases will be carried away by the wind, the most
valuable portion of the juices will all be absorbed by the soil immediately
beneath the heap, and the places where these heaps have been will be
marked by the rank growth of the crop, whilst the surrounding parts
present an impoverished appearance.

The proper time for carting manure varies much with the circumstances
and economy of the farm. Winter manure is best suited for seed crops,
whilst fresh litter is particularly adapted to potatoes, especially in clay soils,
because it diminishes their tenacity, and allows the plant to come in contact
with the atmosphere. Other crops, and especially cabbages, do better with
decomposed manures; this being, on light lands, essential to their success.
Afterwards, the manure for beans and peas may be carted, and this can

Fig. 28.

= =

either be buried or spread over the soil. To heavy clay lands a larger
portion of manure must be given at a time, because they can bear it without
risk of the crops being laid. Upon a light, hot soil, the manure is quickly
decompused, and a very abundant supply may have a bad effect, in causing

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 53

the crops either to fall or to scorch up. In mixing fine manures with the
soil, the improved expanding cultivator (Fig. 28) is very useful.

Forming Composts.—In the formation of composts, two methods are
pursued. [n the one, the several matters of which they are composed are
divided into different layers, and placed one above the other ; at the bottom
of the heap a bed of turf or of earth is placed, five or six feet larger on
each side than the extended heap; then a layer, about a foot thick, of the
freshest dung that is to be had; above this another layer of turf or earth.
If there are any other matters capable of putrefaction, they are placed upon
this bed, which is covered with another layer of dung, and so on, till it has
arrived at a height of five or six feet ; it is then covered with another layer
of earth. Quick-lime is often mixed with these composts, but the lime must
not be in immediate contact with the dung, because it causes it to decom-
pose too speedily and to too great an extent. Place it between two layers
of earth, or between earth and any other substance difficult of decomposi-
tion. When the sides of the bed of the dung-hill have become saturated
with the liquor from the heaps, they are turned over and spread upon the
surface. ‘The compost then heats, and fermentation commences, and it is
left till this fermentation ceases. When no more heat is felt in the interior
of the heap, it is turned over, so that the part which was above becomes
the bottom, and that which formed the sides is turned into the middle.
Sometimes a fresh bed of earth is placed below the heap. The heap, when
turned over, is long and narrow, resembling a roof, in order that it may be
more exposed to the air; because it is thought that by this means it is
increased in weight and quality.

In the other method which is pursued in forming composts, the various
substances are all brought to the place where the dunghill is to be made,
and are deposited separately around it. The bed of earth for the bottom of
the heap is then formed in the middle ; the laborers then surround the heap,
and each, with a shovel, throws the substances as they lie around it into the
bed, by which means the whole mass is equally mixed throughout. Thus
loam, earth, tufts of grass, moss, the leaves of trees, particularly of pine
trees, saw-dust, and the remains of animal or vegetable matter, and very
often, in addition to this, lime, ashes, soot, and fresh litter, are all incor-
porated, and the mixture wetted with the liquid which drains from the
manure, or with urine. This dunghill should, like the former, be allowed
to remain quiet till the fermentation is past, when it should be turned over
several times.

Litter. — Where there is a scarcity of straw, various vegetable substances
are used for the purpose of absorbing and retaining the excrementitious

- matters, and forming a dry bed for the cattle, as well as for increasing the
5 * '

54 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

quantity of the manure. The litter in most general use, after straw, is the
leaves of trees, especially the pine; and when once the decomposition has
taken place, the dung is even superior in quality, because the pine-tree
leaves contain a far greater proportion of nutritive juices than the straw
Oak-leaves are not so good, and when mixed with manure before they are
decomposed, must not be removed from the heap for a considerable period
The leaves of beech, walnut, and chestnut trees are apparently not greatly
beneficial to vegetation, since little or no grass usually grows under them ,
but, when mixed with dung, they svon lose their baneful properties, and
1apidly decompose. Alder, willow, and poplar leaves decompose quickly,
but they possess little consistence, and tend only slightly to increase the
volume of the excrements which they receive. Heath, broom, reeds,
rushes, aquatic plants, moss, fern, &c., may be used as litter, when nothing
else can be obtained.

Applying Liquid Manure.—'The liquid manures, which should be
carefully attended to, are specially devoted to those crops which will bear
rich ameliorations. Some farmers reserve them for clovers and other
artificial meadows, or for natural pastures. They are never so advan-
tageous as when applied to sandy soils, which they render tolerably
consistent, and more adapted for the retention of moisture; but the use of
liquid manure will never replace that of dung on hard or clayey soils.

Folding. — Besides the various animal manures which we have named,
there is that which arises from the folding or cotting of sheep or cattle on
arable land. This practice is most usually followed with sheep. It is
questionable, however, whether this close confinement of sheep be favorable
to their health and fleece. It is only the strongest and most vigorous breeds
that can support it. And, independently of the difference in the health of
animals, folding at night in common, littered, combines all the advantages
of folding on arable land, with this exception, that the latter method saves
the labor and expense of carrying the manure.

Dead Bodies, Bones, gc. — Animal bodies, when dead, form a peculiarly
acnuve manure. [f these are collected together in trenches, or enclosures
walled around, covered with quick-lime, mixed with earth, and subse-
quently, when they have lost their putrid and offensive smell, which is
soon carried off by the lime, the whole mixture be stirred and mingled
cogether, an exceedingly active manure will be obtained. Even bones
are softened by the admixture of quick-lime, and when powdered and
applied to land, produce a wonderful effect. Fish, covered with lime and
mixed with earth, are very fertilizing. Horn, hoofs of animals, shamble
refuse, hair and wool, sugar scum, and all kinds of filth, are good for
manuring. Guano, which consists simply of the excrement of sea-fowls, is

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 55

also a powerful manure, but must be applied more abundantly than is com-
monly supposed, in order to be effective. It should not be applied in
immediate contact with seeds, requires considerable moisture, and, if well
mixed with three or four times its weight of finely sifted earth, and suffered
to remain some weeks in this state before it is used by the drill, or applied
broadcast, its effects will be more considerable.

Vegetable Manures. — Purely vegetable manures are not nearly so active and
energetic as those of animal origin; but, on the other hand, their effects are
more durable. ‘There cannot be a doubt that all those weeds which are
allowed to produce their flowers, and then buried by the action of the
plough, tend to augment the fertility of the soil. There is not a single
vegetable substance, even down to the stubble which most crops leave
behind them, which does not restore some portion of mould to the soil; and
nothing tends to improve land more than the turf or accumulation of herbage
which is successively formed during a number of years. Those plants,
however, which are cultivated for the purpose of being buried as vegetable
manure, should be such as will shoot up and flourish with all possible
rapidity. The seed must not be expensive ; but of such a nature as that a small
quantity will sow a considerable surface, —must be well adapted to keep the
soil loose, and must be disposed to putrescence. There is no plant which
combines these qualities so largely as what is called corn spurry ; also rape
peas, vetches, beans, and buckwheat. Sea-weeds and pond-weeds may
likewise be entered in the class of vegetable substances which yield am
active and energetic manure ; also the weed which is found at the bottom of
tivers, ponds, and other places in which stagnant water has remained for
any length of time. Peat is a substance which may also be employed for
the amelioration of land, especially light, friable soils.

Mineral Manures. — Of late years there has been considerable discussion
concerning lime as a manure. This substance, especially when it has
been recently calcined, or is, in other words, what we call quick-lime,
absorbs the carbonic acid which is contained in the atmosphere which
surrounds it, and afterwards communicating it to the plants, doubtless
furnishes them with some nourishment: but this nutrition is very slight;
the property to which it owes the chief power in promoting vegetation is
that of decomposing the various inert vegetable or animal substances which
it meets with in the soil, and transforming them into nutritive juices
adapted to the nature of plants.

The use of marl is always attended by evident and beneficial effects,
especially when clayey marl is applied to a sandy soil ; and advantageous
results have been obtained even when, after several years of rest, the land has
appeared so exhausted and sterile as scarcely to be worth the trouble of

56 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.

sowing it. It is likewise advantageous to make use of marl mixed with
dung, and with peat and mud, in the form of a compost.

The effects of gypsum are much greater on dry soils than on those which
are moist or damp. It is chiefly used in the cultivation of clover, or othet
plants of a similar nature. It is applied both in a calcined and an uncaleined
state, without much difference in its effects, unless, indeed, a heavy rain falls
immediately after this substance has been spread in the former state, when
the powder will be converted into hard, strong lumps, and rendered useless.
The most important point is to see that the gypsum is powdered as fine as
possible, and strew it when there is but little wind.

Ashes, of various kinds, are much used, especially abroad. When
thoroughly burned, ashes are composed of earths and potash, to which are
sometimes added metallic oxides and different salts. Lime is always the
predominating earth which enters into their composition, even when the
plants whence they are derived have not sprung from a limy soil. Bleach-
ers’ and soap-boilers’ ashes are much preferred.

7. Drarninc.— As a certain quantity of moisture is essential to vegeta-
tion, so an excess of it is highly detrimental. In the removal of this excess
consists the operation of draining.

The Causes of Wetness in Lands. — The successful practice of draining
depends, in a great measure, on a proper knowledge of the structure of the
earth’s upper crust ; that is, of the various layers of which it is composed,
as well as of their relative degrees of porosity, or capability of admitting or
rejecting the passage of water through them, and likewise the modes in
which the water is formed, and conducted from the high or hilly situations
to the low or level grounds. ‘To perform properly the business of draining,
attention should not only be paid to the differences in regard to the situation
of the lands, or what is commonly called drainage land, but also to the
nature, distribution, and depth of the materials that constitute the soils or
more superficial parts of them, as upon each of these some variety, in respect
to the effects arising from water retained in them, may depend. Wetness
of land, so far as it respects agriculture, and is an object of draining, may
generally depend on the two following causes: first, on the water which is
formed and collected on or in the hills or higher grounds, filtrating and
sliding down among some of the different beds of porous materials that lie
immediately upon the hard strata or layers, forming springs below and
flowing over the surface, or stagnating underneath it, — and, secondly, on
rain or other water becoming stagnant on the surface, from the retentive
nature of the soil or surface materials, and the particular nature of the situa-
tion of the ground. The particular wetness which shows itself in different
situations, in the forms of bogs, swamps, and morasses, for the most part

SsOILS* THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 57

proceeds from the first of these causes; but that superficial wetness which
takes place in the stiff, tenacious, clayey soils, with little inclination of
surface, generally originates from the latter. ‘The most certain and expedi-
tious method of draining, in such cases, is that of intercepting the descent of
the water or spring, and thereby totally removing the cause of wetness.
This may be done where the depth of the surface, and consequently of the
spring, is not great, by making level drains of considerable length across the
declivities of the hills, about where the low grounds of the valleys begin to
form, and connecting these with others made for the purpose of conveying
the water thus collected into the brooks or rivulets that may be near.
Where the spring has naturally formed itself an outlet, it may frequently
only be necessary to bore into it, or render it larger, and of more depth,
which, by affording the water a more free and open passage, may evacuate
and bring it off more quickly, or sink it toa level so greatly below that of
the surface of the soil as to prevent it from flowing into or over it.

Boggy Lands, and the True Line of the Spring. —In the drainage of
boggy or wet grounds, arising from springs of water beneath them, it is
necessary to be fully acquainted with the nature and disposition of the strata
composing the higher grounds, and the connection which they have with
that which is to be rendered dry. The line of springs being ascertained,
and also some knowledge of the under surface, a line of drain should be
marked out above or below them, according to the nature of the strata, and
excavated to such a depth as will intercept the water in the porous strata
before it rises to the surface. The effect of such drains will often be greatly
heightened by boring holes in their bottom with the auger. Where water
issues forth on the surface at more places than one, it is necessary to deter-
mine which is the real or principal spring, and that from which the other
outlets are fed, as by removing the source, the others must of course be
rendered dry. It may sometimes happen that where the highest are the
strongest outlets, they may be the main or leading springs; those which
show themselves lower down in the land being merely formed by the water
of the main spring overflowing, and finding itself a passage from an opening,
or the porous nature of the materials of the soil near to the surface, and from
being obstructed somewhat further down in the ground by some impenetrable
layer. This circumstance must, therefore, be fully ascertained before the
lines for the ditches or drains are marked out. In cases where the banks or
rising grounds are formed in an irregular manner, and from the nature of
the situation, or the force of the water underneath, springs abound around the
bases of the protuberances, the ditches made for the purpose of draining should
always be carried up to a much higher level in the side of the elevated
ground than that in which the wetness or water appears ; as far even as to

58 FARMER’S HAND-BUOK.

the firm, unchanged land. Where there is a difficulty in ascertaining the line
of the spring, and consequently that of the cross drain, either ‘rom its not
showing itself upon the surface, or from there not being any apparent outlet,
it may generally be met with in carrying up the conducting drain for con-
veying away the water; as soon as the operator discovers the spring, he
need not proceed any further, but form the cross drain on the level thus dis-
covered to such a distance on each side of the tail, or terminating part of the
strata, of whatever sort, that contains the water, as the nature of the land,
it regard to situation or other circumstances, may demand. ‘The following
figure, representing an uneven surface, will illustrate the nature of the strata
which produce springs.

Fig. 29.

Suppose a A a porous gravel, through which the water filtrates readily ,
B B astratum of loam or clay, impervious to water. The water which
comes through a a will run along the surface of B B towards ss, where
it will spring to the surface, and form a lake or bog between sands. Sup-
pose another gravelly or pervious stratum under the last, as cc c, bend-
ing as here represented, and filled with water running into it from a higher
level; it is evident that this stratum wil] be saturated with water up to the
dotted line EFF, which is the level of the point in the lower rock, or
impervious stratum, D, where the water can run over it. If the stratum
B B has any crevices in it below the dotted line, the water will rise through
these to the surface, and form springs rising from the bottom of the lake or
bog ; and if B B were bored through and a pipe inserted, rising up to the
dotted line, as c v, the water would rise and stand ato. If there were no
springs at s s, the space below the dotted line might still be filled with
water rising from stratumccc. Butif the boring took place at c, the
water would not rise, but, on the contrary, if there were any on the surface,
it would be carried down to the porous stratum c c c, and run off.
Thus in one situation boring will bring water, and in another it wil! take it
off. This principle being well understood, will greatly facilitate all drain-
ings of springs. Wherever water springs, there must be a pervious and an
impervious stratum to cause it, and the water either runs over the impervi-
ous surface, or rises through the crevices in it. When the line of the
springs is found, as at ss, the obvious remedy is to cut a channel with a
sufficient declivity to take off the water in a direction across this line, and

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 59

sunk through the porous soil at the surface into the lower impervious earth.
The place for this channel is where the porous soil is the shallowest above
the breaking out, so as to require the least depth of drain; but the solid
stratum must be reached, or the draining will be imperfect. It was by at-
tending to all these circumstances that Elkington acquired his celebrity in
draining, and that he has been regarded as the father of the system.

Drains, and Peat Lands. — When the drains cannot be carried to a
sufficient depth to take the water out of the porous stratum saturated with
st, it is often useful to bore numerous holes with a proper auger in the
bottom of the drain through the stiffer soil, and, according to the principle
explained in the preceding figure, the water will either rise through these
bores into the drains, and be carried off, and the natural springs will be
dried up, or it will sink down through them as at e, in the section, if it lies
above. This method is often advantageous in the draining of peat-bogs,
which generally lie on clay or stiff loam, with a layer of gravel between the
loam and the peat, the whole lying in a basin or hollow, and often on a
declivity. The peat, though it retains water, is not pervious, and drains
may be cut into it which will hold water. When the drains are four or five
feet deep, and the peat is much deeper, holes are bored down to the clay
below, and the water is pressed up through these holes, by the weight of
the whole body of peat, into the drains, by which it is carried off. Figures
30 and 31, represent a common case of this kind; / / (Fig. 31) are the
sides of a hill; the swampy lot, below, is filled with springs, which
are, however, drained by running a ditch (d 6) across it, and sinking

Fig. 31.

'(]’@

Fs ui

mths
= SRN WE
FSS SNS

Stee Sts

—s
G
ify

= ce yo i =

holes into the subsoil. One of these holes is seen in Fig. 30 (a 6), and the
manner in which it conveys the surface water away. The hottom of the

60 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

drains is sometimes choked with louse sand, which flows up with the water,
and they require to be cleared repeatedly ; but this soon ceases after the first
rush is past, and the water rises slowly and regularly. The surface of the
peat, being dried, dressed with lime, and consolidated with earth and gravel,
soon becomes productive.

When a single large and deep drain will produce the desired effect, it is
much better than when there are severa] smaller, as large drains are more
easily kept open, and last longer, than smaller ones ; but this is only the ease
in tapping main springs, for, if the water is diffused through the surrounding
soil, numerous smal] drains are more effective. But, as soon as there is a
sufficient body of water collected, the smaller drains should run into larger,
and these into main drains, which should all, as far as is practicable, unite into
one principal outlet, by which means there will be less chance of their being
choked up. When the water springs into a drain from below, it is best to
fill up that part of the drain which lies above the stones, or other materials
which form the channel, with solid earth well pressed in, and made imper-
vious to within a few inches of the bottom of the furrows in ploughed Jand,
or the sod in pastures; because the water running along the surface is apt
to carry loose earth with it, and choke the drains. When the water comes
in by the sides of the drains, loose stones, or gravel, or any porous material,
should be laid in them to the line where the water comes in, and a little
above it. over which the earth may be rammed in tight, so as to allow the
horses to walk over the drain without sinking in.

Hard Soils. — Another branch in the art of draining is the removal of
water from hard soils which lie flat, or in hollows, where the water froma
rain, snow, or dews, which cannot sink into the soil, runs along the surface
and stagnates in every cavity or depression. In this case a number of drains
are required to Jay the surface dry. There is often a layer of light earth
immediately over a sub-layer of clay, and after continued rains this soil
becomes filled with water, like a sponge, and no healthy vegetation can
take place. To meet this, numerous drains must be made in the subsoil,
and even the draining tiles or bushes, which may be laid at the bottom of
tne drains; loose gravel or broken stones must be laid to within a foot of
the surface, so that the plough shall not reach them. The water will
gradually sink into these drains and be carried off, and the loose wet soil
will become firm and dry.

Direction of Drains. — \t is very seldom that a field is absolutely level ;
the first thing, therefore, to be ascertained, is the greatest inclination, and its
direction. The next object is to arrange drains so that each shall collect as
much of the water in the soil as possible. Large drains, except as main
drains, are inadmissible. The depth should be such only that the plough may

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 61

not reach it, if the land is arable, or the feet of cattle tread it in, if it be in
pasture. All the drains which are to collect the water should lie as nearly
at right angles to the inclination of the surface as is consistent with a suf-
ficient fall in the drain to make them run. One foot is sufficient fall for a
drain three hundred feet in length, provided the drains be not more than
twenty feet apart. The main drains, by being laid obliquely, across the
fall of the ground, will help to take off a part of the surface water. It is
evident that the drains can seldom be in a straight line, unless the ground
be perfectly even. ‘They should, however, never have sudden turns, but be
bent gradually where the direction is changed. The flatter the surface and
the stiffer the soil, the greater number of drains will be required. It isa
common practice with drainers to run a main drain directly down the slope,
however rapid, and to carry smaller drains into this alternately on the right
and left, which they call herring-bone fashion. But this can only be
approved of where the ground is nearly level, and where there is very little
fall for the main drain. A considerable fall is to be avoided as much as
possible, and every drain should lie obliquely to the natural run of the water.
It generally happens that, besides surface water, there are also some land
springs arising from a variation in the soil ; these should be carefully ascer-
tained, and the drains should be so Jaid as to cut them off.
Clay Land. — In draining clay land, where there is only a layer of a few
inches of looser soil over a solid clay, which the plough never stirs, the

Fig. 32. :
Y MA

Y U,

drains need not be deeper than two feet in the solid clay, nor wider than
they can be made without the sides falling in. The common draining tile,
which is a flat tile bent in the form of half a cylinder, and which can be
made at a very cheap rate, is the best for extensive surface draining. In
solid clay it requires no flat tile under it; it is merely an arch to carry the
loose stones or earth with which the drain is filled up. Loose round stones

or pebbles are the best where they can be procured, and in place of them,

bushes, 7 or straw may be laid. In grass land the sod may be laid

62 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

over the drain, after it has been filled up, so as to form a slight ridge over
it. This will soon sink to a level with the surface. To save the expense
of stone or tiles, drains are frequently made six inches wide at the bottom ;
a narrow channel is cut in the solid clay, two or three inches wide and six
deep (a), leaving a shoulder on each side to support a sod, which is cut so
as to fit the drain, and rest on the shoulder (d) ; this sod keeps the earth
from filling the channel. It is filled up as previously described. Where
the clay is not sufficiently tenacious, the bottom of the drain is sometimes
cut with a sharp angle, and a twisted rope of straw is thrust into it. This
keeps the earth from falling in, and the running of the water keeps the
channel open; the straw, not being exposed to the air, remains a long time
without decaying. It is a common mistake to suppose that in these drains
water enters from above ;—it rises from below.

Varieties of Drains. — The different sorts of drains in use may be classed
in two divisions, — drains of conveyance alone, and drains of conveyance
and collection jointly. In the former, all that is necessary is a channel or
passage for the water, of sufficient dimensions, which may be formed by pipes
of different kinds, arclfed or barrel drains, and box or walled drains. We
give cuts of these, as follows:

Fig. 33.

8. Irrigatinc. — Watering poor land, especially of a gravelly nature, is
one among the many useful means resorted to by intelligent farmers to
improve it and make it fit for cultivation. Land, when once improved by
irrigation, is put into a durable state of fertility, and becomes so productive
as to yield a large bulk of hay, and the after-math is also valuable. In favor-
able situations, it produces very early grass, which, on that account, is doubly
valuable.

The main object of irrigation in tropical climates seems merely to be to
sarry to the ground that quantity of water which is necessary for the growth

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 6

ivy)

and nourishment of the plants to be produced ; but this species of irrigation
is very different from-that to which the term is applied in this country. In
temperate climates, the purpose is not merely to supply the deficiency of
water in the soil. The whole art of irrigation may be defined to be, the
supplying a sufficiency of water during all the time the plants are growing,
and, secondly, never to allow this water to accumulate so as to stagnate.

The supply of water must come from natural lakes and rivers, or from
wells and ponds. As the water must flow over the land, or in channels
through it, the supply must be above the level of the land to be irrigated.
This is generally the main object to be considered ; and the taking of the
level is, therefore, the first step towards irrigating. The improved hydraulic’
ram, seen in the annexed cut, is an excellent machine; H represents the
spring or brook; c, drive or supply pipe, from spring to ram; G, pipe
conveying water to house, or other point required for use; BD A £1, the
ram ; J, the plank or other foundation to which the machine is secured.

Channels. — Along the banks of running streams nature points out the
declivity.. A channel which receives the water at a point higher than that
to which the river flows, may be dug with a much smaller declivity than
that of the bed of the river, and made to carry the water much higher than
the natural banks ; it may thence be distributed so as to descend slowly, and
water a considerable extent of ground, in its way to rejoin the stream. This
is a common mode of irrigation, and the shape, size, and direction of the
channels, are regulated by the nature of the surface, and other circumstances,
which vary in almost every situation.

64 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Kind of Soils for the Purpose. — The soils most suitable for being watered
are all those which are of a sandy or gravelly nature, as the improvement is
not only more immediate, but the effect more powerful, on those than on any
other descriptions of land. It is of advantage that the soil should be incum-
bent on a warm and absorbent bottom; for the subsoil of watered meadows
is considered of more importance than the quality or depth of the surface
soil. The best watered meadows are sometimes those in which the soil is
only a few inches in depth, especially when the bottom is porous.

Waters Best Adapted. — With regard to the quality of the waters most
suitable for irrigation, those of rivers which flow through a rich and culti-
vated country are to be preferred, as they are enriched by the animal and
vegetable matters which they receive in their progress, and which are
contained in them in a state of solution. A considerable portion of these
matters is left on the surface of the land by the waters passing over it, and
it is thereby greatly enriched. Water from bogs is considered inferior, from
the antiseptic (resisting putrefaction) quality communicated. to it from the
peat. Water impregnated with iron has sometimes been used with good
effect. ‘ =

Fig. 35.

Meadow Watering.—The above diagram represents a watered meadow.
A is the main conductor, 8 the wear placed across the river to intercept the
course of the water, and c ccc are the feeders taken off as directed from the
main conductor, at right angles to it, by which a constant flow of water is .

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 65
maintained over the surface. The water is then carried off the meadow by
means of the small drains e e e e, passing between the intervals of the former,
and communicating with the main drain d d, which again conveys the water
‘to the river. The dimensions of these smaller drains are seen to be greatest
where they respectively join the main conductor and main drain, being then
about four inches deep and eight or ten inches wide, and gradually diminish-
ing to a point, as seen in the figure. The dimensions of these drains, how-
ever, as well as the distance between them, must be regulated by the extent
of the ground to be gone over, and the nature of the soil. It is frequently
necessary that the water should be collected and conveyed to another main
conductor for watering a meuidow in a lower situation; and when slight
inequalities occur in the surface, or when it is wished to convey an addi
tional quantity of water in any particular direction, stops are used for the
purpose, which consist of small pieces of sods placed in the drains to cause
the water to flow over.

Preparing the Surface. —In the preparation of the surface for irrigation,
it is usual to form it into low ridges, the feeders being on the crowns of the
ridges, and the drains for carrying off the water in the furrows. The plan
illustrated in the preceding figure is designed only for situations in which

Fig. 36.

the inclination is not considerable. In the irrigation of lands with consid
erable inclination of surface, the feeders cannot be carried along lengthwise,
G* : E

66 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

as in the former case, but across the line of descent, so that the water flow
ing from one is intercepted by the next lower, and so on until it has covered
the whole of the meadow. This is termed catch-work irrigation. The
preceding figure is an example of irrigation where the soil is very porous,
and gently inclined, the supply of water being abundant. A main carrier
is led from the sluice (a) directly across the declivity (4), and side feeders
(c) taken out from it at regular distances. These feeders have stops of
turf, at regular distances (d), by which means the water-is dispersed. After
watering a space of from twenty to forty feet in breadth, it is again collected
by the small drains in the furrows, and returned lower down to another
feeder.

The Time to Operate. — The process of floating the meadow commences
generally in the month of October, or as soon as possible after the after-
math has been consumed, or the last crop of hay removed. The water is
first kept upon the ground for periods of a fortnight or three weeks at a
time. It is then let off, and the ground left perfectly dry, for five or six
days; and this process of alternate flooding and drying is continued for
some time, care being taken to let off the water when it begins to freeze.
As the spring advances and the grasses shoot forth, the periods of watering
are shortened, so that the flooding shal] not last more than a few days at a
time.

The formation and arrangement of surfaces for irrigation, however simple
in principle, are, in practice, among the most difficult operations of agricul-
tural improvement. Whoever, therefore, contemplates the execution of this
kind of work to any considerable extent, will find it desirable to consult a
person experienced in the matter.

9. Roration or Crops.—The fertility or the barrenness of a soil de-
pends upon its constituent parts. If it abounds in those elements which
are necessary for the nourishment of the crops to be grown upon it, they
will flourish, and yield abundant returns for the labor bestowed upon
them ; but if any of those substances are wanting which constitute the
peculiar food of the growing plants, the yield will be small, and the
quality inferior. What one soil, however, may be deficient in, another
may possess in abundance; and hence it is requisite to adapt the crop to
the soil; though in doing so, care must be taken not to exhaust a gene-
rous soil by growing the same crop upon it for a succession of years,
Nature herself teaches us, that no soil which has been drained of those
combinations of matter which form the appropriate food of the plante
growing upon it, can continue to sustain them in a flourishing condition.
Even the forests are compelled to yield to this great law, and, after a long

SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 67

term of years, one kind of timber will give place to another of a totally
different character.

The principles upon which a regular succession of crops is based, are:
1. That all plants exhaust the soil, though in an unequal degree. 2.
That plants of different kinds do not exhaust the soil in the same manner.
3. That all plants do not restore to the soil a like quantity or quality of
manure. 4. That all plants are not equally favorable to the growth of
weeds. These principles, confirmed by experience, fourm the basis of an
agricultural system, not only rich in its products, but rendered highly
profitable by the economy of labor and manure; and from them the fol-
lowing deductions are a natural consequence: 1. That, however prolific
a soil may be, it will eventually become exhausted under a long succes-
sion of crops. 2. That, to a certain extent, each harvest impoverishes
the soil; the amount of depletion depending upon the proportion of nou-
rishment restored to the earth by its refuse. 3. That the cultivation of
one kind of plants should be followed by that of an entirely different
variety. 4. That it is necessary to avoid returning too soon to the cul-
tivation of the same, or analogous, kinds of plants on the same land.
5. That it is very injudicious to raise in succession, on the same piece of
ground, two varieties of vegetables, which admit of a ready growth of
weeds among them. 6. That plants which draw their sustenance
entirely from the soil, should be plentifully supplied with manure.
7. That where a soil begins to exhibit symptoms of exhaustion, only those
crops should be cultivated which will again restore to it the greatest
amount of nutriment.

Though the system of rotation is adapted to every soil, no particular
rotation can be assigned to any one description of soil which will answer
at all times; much depending on climatic changes, and on the demand
for different kinds of produce. But, wherever the system is properly
carried out, and the several processes of labor which belong to it are well
executed, land will very rarely become foul and exhausted. On clayey
soils, beans and clover, with rye-grass, are generally alternated with
grain crops; and on dry loams or sandy ground, turnips, beets, potatoes,
and clover. On rich soils, or such as are abundantly supplied with pu-
trescent manures, this system of alternate husbandry is certainly most
conducive to the plentiful production of food, both for men and animals.
One portion of a farm would thus be always under grain crops, while the
other portion was growing roots or cultivated grasses; but, as the major
part of arable lands cannot be preserved in a state of fertility with even
this kind of management, and as sandy soils, even though they be libe-
rally manured, soon become incohesive under constant tillage, it is requi-

68 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

site that the portion of the farm which is under cultivated grasses, should
be pastured for two or three years, in order to give it time to reeruit. If
they require it, all the fields of a farm are thus treated in turn.

Light and dry soils will not bear the same kind of crops which grow
well on those of a more compact and moist character; and all the different
kinds of soils require different rotations of crops. Each farmer, therefore,
should establish a system for himself, based upon a thorough acquaint-
ance with the character and properties of the land he cultivates. Intel-
ligent agriculturists, whose lands lie at a distance from market, will
endeavor to avoid the expense incident to the transportation of bulky
products, by giving the preference to such crops of fodder, or of roots, as
may be consumed on the land by live-stock; it being much easier and
less costly to carry to market a ton of hay in the form of beef, or a thou-
sand bushels of corn, turnips, or potatoes, in that of pork, than to convey
thither a like quantity of those products in their-natural condition.

The following system has been very generally adopted by the most
successful farmers, in the best cultivated counties of eastern Pennsylvania.
After a grass or clover field has been mowed one year, and pastured the
following spring and summer, it is ploughed up late in autumn, or in
early spring, and planted with Indian corn. When this crop is cut down
the succeeding autumn, the field is again ploughed, either then, or during
the following spring, and sowed with oats or barley. Immediately after
this crop is harvested, the ground is again ploughed up, well manured,
and sown with wheat. Grass seed is sown over the wheat early in spring;
but if timothy is designed to accompany the clover, the former is sown
in autumn, and the latter, with orchard or herd grass, early in spring.
The following spring, after the wheat crop has been harvested, ground
plaster is sown on the land, in the proportion of one bushel to the acre.
The same season the grass is cut for hay, and the next season it is pas-
tured. In the autumn, the land is again ploughed and got ready for
planting corn the following spring, and the same rotation proceeded with,
in the same order; but where a farm contains a sufficient number of
fields, and the grass is well set, it is usual to pasture it for two years
before it is broken up for corn. In the first case it is a five, in the latter
a six years’ rotation. Lime or mar! is frequently applied to the young
grass as a top-dressing, after the wheat crop has been harvested, with
very marked effect on the quantity of grass the first season ; and the suc-
ceeding crop of corn derives more benefit from it than if applied directly.

CHAPTER II.

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.

WHEAT — BARLEY— RYE—THE OAT—INDIAN CORN—BUCKWHEAT—THE PO
TATO—SWEET POTATO—SUGAR BEET—SUGAR CANE—CHINESE SUGAR CANE
—AFRICAN SUGAR CANE—COTTON —TOBACCO—RICE—TEA—BROOM CORN—
MILLET — HEM P — FLAX — LUCERN—SAINFOIN—THE TARE—CLOVER—THE
GRASSES — MOTIVE POWERS FOR FARM PURPOSES.

WHEAT.

Classification. — Writers on agriculture enumerate something like one
hundred varieties of wheat; but the nice distinctions which are necessarily
made in multiplying the sorts to such an extent are but of slight import-
ance to the majority of farmers. The best mode of classifying the plants
included in this order is by natural marks, that is, by the ear and by the
grain. In this way confusion is avoided in describing the ear and the
grain. The farmer who grows the wheat plant, and sells it in the grain,
should be acquainted with both ; but the baker, who is only acquainted with
the grain, need know nothing of the ear. Were he, however, to receive an
ear of each variety of grain he purchased, he would be best able to describe
at once, to the farmer, what particular variety afforded him the flour best
suited to his purpose.

An examination of the ears of wheat proves that they may be consistently
divided into three classes, as represented in the following figure, and dis-
tinguishable thus : —

ais a close or compact eared wheat, which is occasioned by the spikelets
being set near each other on the rachis, and this position makes the chaff
short and broad. The second class of ears is seen at 5, the spikelets being
of medium length and breadth, and placed just so close upon the rachis as
to screen it from view ; the ear is not so broad, but longer than a; the chaff
is of medium length and breadth. The third class is seen at c, the spike-
lets of which are set open, or so far asunder, as to permit the rachis to be
easily seen between them ; the ear is about the same length as the last
specimen, but is much narrower; the chaff is long and narrow. Ind is
represented a bearded wheat, to show the difference of appearance which
the beard gives to the ear. The term bearded is applied the same as spring
wheat; beardless wheat, however, is as fit for sowing in spring as bearded,

and the bearded may be sown in winter. a6
(69)

70 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK

In regard to classifying wheat by the grain, three heads may comprise all
the varieties. (See Fig. 38.) The first class (a) is where all the grains

Fig. 37.

are short, round, and plump. The second class (5), where the grains are
long and of medium size. The third class (c), where the grain is large

Fig. 38.

eee
20908

and long toa greater degree than the last class. These three sorts are
represented according to their natural size.

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. ruil

Best Varieties for Cultivation. —The following are the names of the
kinds of wheat most esteemed and cultivated in this country. White Fint:
This is one of the most valuable kinds in the northern states. The heads
are not too long, but well filled, with thirty to forty grains; the kernel is
white and flinty, large, and with thin bran ; the flour is very superior; the
perfect wheat weighs from 63 to 67 pounds the bushel. Harmon’s White
Flint: A variety improved from the above; the berry is larger, bran very
thin, flour superior ; this and the above are little injured by the Hessian
fly, and will stand a good deal of wet weather. White Provence: Heads
middling and bald, chaff bluish, berry large and white, bran thin, flour
good; it is early, but the straw is small, long, soft, and liable to fall. Old
Genesee Red Chaff: An old favorite, but liable to rust and the fly; red
chaff, bald, long straw, berry white and large, bran thin, superior flour.
Kentucky White-bearded, Hutchinson or Canada Flint: White chaff, bearded,
heads short but heavy and well filled, shells readily, berries round, short
and white, flour very good ; it litters a little; the straw is strong, but liable
to injury from insects. Indiana Wheat: White chaff, bald, berry white
and large, bran thin, berry not so flinty as the white flint, but the straw is
larger and longer ; shells easily ; is attacked by the insects, and it is more
liable to be winter-killed. A variety of white wheat is much esteemed in
western New York, which resembles an improved Indiana; it is called
Scotch Wheat. Virginia White May: White chaff, bald, and resembles
the white flint in its growth and straw, though the heads are more clumped,
the berry stands out more, and shells easier; berry white and hard, bran
medium thick, flour good; matures early. Wheatland Red: Red chaff,
bald, heads of medium length, red berry, good flour, very hardy, bright and
large straw, ripens early. Red Bearded: Red chaff, beards standing out
from the head, berry white, good flour, hardy, succeeds well after corn, o2
on light soils. Mediterranean: Light red chaff, bearded, berry red and
long, flinty, bran thick, inferior flour. Blue Stem: Has been grown in
Virginia for about thirty years; white chaff, bald, berry white, bran thin,
superior flour, straw fair size and good product. The Yorkshire or English
Flint, or Soule’s Wheat, much praised, is similar in its leading features
to the old Genesee. Zhe Egyptian, Smyrna, Reed, Many-spiked, or
Wild Goose Wheat. Crossing will produce new varieties. Propagation
may be extended by separating the plants.

Red wheat is usually grown upon the strongest clay land, and degen-
erates when sown upon a soil of a lighter description. It is hardy, and
as itis better adapted to insure the production of a crop on wet, adhe-
sive soils, it is very generally sown on that class of lands ; but, on all the

72 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

better class of soils, the white or smooth-chaffed wheat is preferable, the
thinness of the husk rendering it more valuable to the miller.

Winter wheat is sometimes confounded with spring wheat, the only dis-
tinction being in the different periods of ripening. 'The produce of wheat
sown in the spring acquires the habit of ripening earlier than the produce
of that sown in autumn. This distinction is not, however, an absolute or
permanent one.

Soils. —' The soils best adapted for the culture of wheat are the rich clays
and the heavy ioams, though these.are not, by any means, the only descrip-
tions of soils on which it may be cultivated. Before the introduction of
turnips and clover, all soils but little adhesive were thought unfit for wheat ;
but even on sandy soils it is now extensively cultivated, after either of these
crops. Such soils, however, are not constitutionally disposed to the growth
of wheat ; nor will they, under any management, bear such a frequent repe-
tition of it as those already mentioned. To bring wheat to perfection, a
dry and warm season is required.

Time for Sowing. —'The season of sowing wheat depends on the crop to
which it succeeds. It is sown before winter, when the land can be then
prepared for its reception, as after fallow or potatoes ; and it is sown in
spring after turnips, cabbages, and such other crops as are not removed off
che land till that season. The time of sowing must depend, also, on the
state of the land, as well as the season. It is, however, generally recom-
mended to put it into the ground as early as may be convenient in autumn ;
and on strong soils it is not unfrequently sown in the latter end of Septem-
ber, in the course of October, and the beginning of November.

Seed Wheat. — Seed wheat is prepared by a process termed pickling,
before being sown. This is intended to prevent rust, of which it is a pre-
ventative. Various substances are employed as a pickle to wash the seed,
the most common and useful being a solution of common salt in water,
sufficiently strong to buoy up a fresh egg. After being freed from all
foreign substances, the seed is dried, and, if not sown immediately after
must be spread thinly over the floor, to prevent its heating.

Culture. — When the seed is sown broadcast, it is covered by the action
of the harrows sufficiently to cover the seed. A double turn along the
ridge, a double turn across, and again a single turn along, will generally
suffice, and oftentimes less than so much. As soon as the seed is hat-
rowed in, the whole should be water-furrowed, to carry all excess of
moisture off the land, by means of the double mould-board plough, with
one horse, passing along the furrows of the field, and the furrows of the
head-lands. Open furrows are also to be drawn through such hollow paria
as the water might stagnate in, care being taken to sink all inequalities,

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 73

that a passage may be afforded for the water to run off. The intersection
of the furrows of the field with those of the head-lands are also to be
cleared out, and cuts made occasionally through the head-lands.

On the lighter class of soils, ploughing in the seed may be adopted.
The seed is sown broadcast; after which a shallow ploughing is given to
the land, and, perhaps, a slight harrowing. The horse-drill, now much in
vogue, will plant wheat, rye, Indian corn, &c., on all kinds of lands. See

figure.

Quantity of Seed. — The quantity of seed necessarily depends on the
time and mode of sowing, and the state of the land; land sown early
requiring less seed than the same land when sown late, and poor land being,
at all times, allowed more seed than rich; also, when sown broadcast, -
more seed is given than when either dibbled or sown in drills. The
quantity, therefore, varies from two bushels, or less, to as many as four
Winter wheat, when sown in spring, should always have considerable seed
Good and improved soils require less than soils not so good, and on the
former the plants are less liable to be injured during the winter, and gener-
ally all come to maturity.

After-Culture. — The after-culture of wheat, or culture of the growing
crop, is chiefly confined to harrowing, rolling, hoeing, and weeding. Har-
rowing is found beneficial in penetrating the crust which is formed on
tenacious soils, and raises a fresh supply of mould to the roots of the plants.
Rolling in spring should be practised on dry, porous soils, which are fre-

74 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

quently left in so loose a state by the winter frosts, that the roots are thrown
out of the ground, and perish. Hoeing is performed when the row-culture
is adopted, to pulverize the intervals between the rows, and to check the
growth of weeds.

Culting and Harvesting. — The grain should be cut immediately after
the lowest part of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in the
dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and finger. If cut
at this time, it will yield mire in measure and weight, and a larger quan-
tity of sweet, white flour. If early cut, a longer time is required for curing,
before storing or threshing. ‘The latter operation is usually done, by
extensive wheat-growers, with a large machine, taken into the field, and
driven by horse-power ; with moderate farmers, a small single or double
horse-machine, or hand-threshing in winter.

If the grain is perfectly ripe, and the straw thoroughly dried, and the
sheaves free from grass or weeds, wheat may be cut and stacked or housed
the same day. It must, however, be effectually cured in the fields. To
save it from wetting, some farmers lay it in the form of a cross, surmounted
with a sheaf so disposed as to throw off any slight showers that may fall ;
others place it in shocks, the sheaves two and two, standing on their butts,
the heads of the sheaves inclined to each other, and the tops spread out so
as to shield the standing sheaves as much as possible; others, again, place
uneir wheat in the same position as the last, with the exception that all of
the shock is left standing, and no sheaves are placed over the heads. Un-
less very dry, it should be laid on scaffolds, when taken into the barn, to
prevent heating and moulding. When placed in a stack, it should be well
elevated from the ground, and, if the stack be large, a chimney of Jattice or

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 75

open-work should be left from the bottom, extending to the top, to produce
circulation. The straw or chaff yields good fodder, when cut or mixed
with meal or roots; it is also good for bedding cattle, for manure, and
should never be wasted. The fan-mill, for cleaning grain, is too well
known to be described in this place.

Fig. 41.

il
HN

UM hy SS

ST
aul t
aA i
AN i

Enemies of Wheat.— Wheat is subject to various diseases, principally
the mildew, smut, and rust. Mildew is indicated by the presence of certain
minute plants of the order of fungi, which grow upon the stem and leaves,
and doubtless feed upon and exhaust the juices of the plant. The preva-
lence of heavy fogs or mist, drizzling rains, and sudden changes of temper-
ature, have been assigned as the cause of mildew, and it has been found
that open, airy situations are much less subject to it than low sheltered
lands. ‘To remove this destructive agent, the use of salt is highly recom-
mended ‘The quantity of salt per gallon is eight ounces, and the applica-
tion is more effectual if frequently repeated, and does no injury to the
plants. If the application is not made during a cloudy day, it is best to
defer it until evening.

When wheat is infected with the smut, the farina of the grain, togethei
with its proper coverings, and part of the husk, is converted into a black,

76 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

soot-like powder This disease does not affect the whole of the crop, bu
the smutted ears are sometimes very numerously dispersed through it. If
the seed be prepared in the way already described, the disease will rarely
prevail to such an extent as to affect materially the value of the crop.

Rust is another very prevalent disease, nearly allied to the mildew. It
appears in the form of a brownish dust upon the stem, leaves, and seed,
and, like the others, is*produced by a parasitical plant.

The roots of the wheat plant are liable to be attacked by grubs and
worms, the larve of various beetles ; among these are the wire-worm, and
the red-headed large white grub, the larve of the May-bug, cockchaffer,
or black bug. These often do much injury, and late ploughing is the best
mode of destroying them, by thus exposing them to the frosts; when they
appear in the summer, they are sometimes destroyed by being attracted
towards large fires, kindled for the purpose, and perishing in them. But
the insects that attack the wheat while growing and in the ear are by far
the most powerful enemies which it encounters. These insects are the
Hessian fly and the wheat fly. The former has a black head, thorax, and
wings, with a brownish body; the latter is of smaller size, of a yellow
color, and clear wings. (See Chapter on InsxcTs.)

BARLEY.

Classification. —'The natural classification of barley by the ear is obvi-
ously of three kinds, — four-rowed, six-rowed, and two-rowed, as in Fig. 43.

In Fig. 43, a is the four-rowed, or bere or bigg; c¢ is the six-rowed;
and } the two-rowed.

When classified by the grain, there are two kinds, bere or bigg, and
barley ; and though both are awned, they are sufficiently marked to consti-
tute distinct varieties. In the bere (Fig. 42, a), the median line of the
bosam is so traced as to give the grain a twisted form, by which one of its
sides is larger than the other, and the lengthened point is from where the
awn has been broken off. In the barley (4), the median line passes
straight, and divides the grain into two equal sides, and whose shortness
and plumpness give to it a character of superiority. Both kinds are repre-
sented below, natural size :—

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. f(r

Fig. 43.

Zz,

——— * S SS =
Qa SS

_ Ai ilteo

In this country the two-rowed and the six-rowed are the varieties gen-
erally cultivated, the two-rowed being the kind most esteemed.

Kind of Soil. — The best soil for barley is a rich loam finely pulverized.
It will neither grow well on a sandy or a soft soil, nor on strong clays, such
as are suitable for wheat. It is rarely made to succeed summer fallow,
wheat being, in an especial degree, suited to follow that process, and it
being also the more valuable crop. For a like reason it seldom succeeds
potatoes, as wheat may advantageously be sown at the period of the removal
of the potato crop from the ground. But it succeeds turnips with greater
propriety than any other crop, the turnip crop being cultivated on the
lighter soils, which are the proper soils for barley.

Barley ripens early in autumn, and it may, therefore, be sown later than
any of the other corn crops in the spring. ‘The best season may be said to
be in the month of April or beginning of May. An increased quantity of
straw is produced by late sowing, but the grain is surer the more early that
the crop is sown,

78 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Preparing the Land.— The preparation of land for barley is similar to
that for wheat. After turnips, or other green crop removed in the spring,
the land is tv be ploughed once, after which the seed is to be immediatel
sown. ‘Two ploughings, however, will be necessary when barley succeeds
any of the grain crops removed before winter, and, in this case, the land
should have been drilled up after the removal of the crop, to keep it dry.
As it is found of great importance, with a view to speedy and equal vegeta
tion, that the ground should be fresh and moist at the time of sowing, barley
should then be sown as soon as possible after the seed-furrow is given.

Sowing. — The modes of sowing barley are either broadcast or in rows.
The broadcast system is almost universally employed in the cultivation of
this plant, unless in lands much infested with annual weeds, where drilling
and hand-hoeing, and, sometimes, horse-hoeing, may be adopted with
advantage. The quantity of seed varies from two and a half to three bush-
els to the acre, according to the kind of seed used, the nature of the soil,
and the time of sowing. Liberal sowing is most profitable; and, when
sown late in the season, and in dry weather, the seed is sometimes steeped
in water for a day, to promote a more early and uniform germination. :

Culture. — The seeds of the clovers and grasses are sown simultaneously
with the barley, the succeeding crop being invariably grass. In this case,
the smaller seeds are sown immediately before the last turn of the harrows,
and that turn covers them in. The land is to be rolled afterwards, in order
to exclude drought, pulverize the soil, and cover the clover and grass seeds.

Harvesting. —In the harvesting of barley more care and attention are
requisite than in the case of any of the other grain crops, even in the best sea-
sons; and, in unfavorable seasons, it is almost impossible to save it without
injury. Owing to the brittleness of the stem after it has reached a certain
period, it must be cut down; for when it is suffered to stand longer, much

Fig. 44.

loss is sustained by the breaking off of the heads. On that account, it 1s cut
at atime when the grain is soft, and the straw retains a great proportion of its

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 79

natural juices, and consequently requires a long time in the field before
either the grain is hardened or the straw sufficiently dry.

Threshing and Dressing.—'The threshing and dressing of barley are
attended with more labor than is the case with any other grain, owing to the
tenacity with which the covers adhere to the seeds. After being threshed
in the ordinary way, it is a frequent practice to put the threshed grain a
second time through the machine, accompanied by a portion of straw.
Should this not accomplish the work effectively, then the hummelling
machine (Fig. 44) is used.

Uses. — Barley is used in Europe as a staple article of food. It is
inferior, however, to wheat and rye. In this country it is principally used
for malting and brewing, and for distilling. When ground, it is good for
fattening stock, though more especially swine.

Enenues. —'The diseases of barley are few. It is sometimes attacked by
the larve of certain flies. It is also subject to smut, but of quite a different
character from that which affects wheat, and one which, it is found, cannot
be prevented by pickling and liming.

RYE.

Varieties. — Of rye, there is, strictly speaking, only one variety,
although it is usually divided into winter and spring rye; but these are
produced merely by the different periods of sowing, and resemble each
other so much, that, when sown together, they cannot be distinguished.

Fig. 45.

Soil.— The soil for rye may be inferior to that chosen for wheat, and it
will succeed with less culture and manure. The soils hest snited to its

80 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

growth are those which contain the greatest proportion of sand, and there
are instances on record in which it succeeded on land containing eighty-five
per cent. of this substance. ‘Those soils, however, which contain a less
proportion of sand are preferable ; for, though it will grow upon ground of
the poorest description, yet the produce will be more abundant upon good
land, provided it be not of a clayey nature. In this country it is grown in —
the north-eastern and middle Atlantic states, and on the light lands of
Ohio and Michigan; and, as the supporting elements of wheat become
exhausted in the soil of the rich agricultural states of the West, rye will in
a great measure take its place on their lighter soils.

Time for Sowing.—Rye may be sown either in the autumn or in
spring, and, as in the case of wheat, the period of ripening is affected by
that of sowing. ‘The quantity ot seed may be two bushels and a half to the
acre, but, when grown for straw plait, this quantity is more than doubled.
As it vegetates more slowly than wheat, it should be sown when the soil
is dry; otherwise, the grain is in danger of rotting in the ground before it has
completely germinated

Culture. — Rye, being sown upon light and poor soils, obtains less atten-
tion in its production than wheat; it also suffers less from being sown upon
the stubble of another corn crop, or even upon its own; and it is therefore
not unusual to grow it successively two years upon the same land, but this
is somewhat contrary to the principles of good husbandry, and cannot be
recommended for imitation. .

The after-culture, harvesting, and threshing of the crop, are similar to
those of wheat. The horizontal fan-mill, for cleaning grain, has been some-
what popular in the Eastern States.

The period of flowering is more decisive of the prospect to be entertained
regarding the success of rye than in the case of any other grain ; and, until it
be past. no opinion can be correctly formed on the subject. The ripening
of the grain is earlier than that of wheat, and is denoted by the straw losing
somewhat of its bright yellow color, becoming paler, and the knots of the
straw losing their green color. The corn then sheds easily from the ear.
When allowed to stand until very ripe, a shower of rain will occasion it to
sprout. }

Product and Uses. —'The produce of rye is nearly the same as that of
moderate crops of wheat, but seldom amounts to those which are very large ;
the quantity of straw is greater than that of any other grain. It grows to a
greater height than the straw of wheat, and, though thinner in the stem, is
stronger; but being hard and wiry, it is not esteemed for fodder, and the
chief use of it is for thatch. It is also valuable to brick-makers, and is
extensively used in the manufacture of straw hats. For the latter purpose,

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 81

it is sown very thick, pulled green, and blanched by exposure te the air. It
is also used both in the brewery and distillery ; and in many parts, after
undergoing a species of bruising or coarse grinding, it is used alone, or
mixed with barley, oats, beans, peas, or tares, which have undergone a
similar operation, and formed into a kind of coarse bread, for feeding domes-
lic animals, particularly horses. Its bread contains a less proportion of
nutritive matter than that of wheat, but it is found to keep longer, and forms
about the only bread eaten by the inhabitants of some countries where the
soil and climate are unsuited for the growth of wheat. It contains a greater
quantity of nutritive matter than either barley or oats, and the husk
possesses an aromatic and slightly acid flavor, which renders it agreeable to
the palate. The bran should not, therefore, be entirely separated from the
flour, for, if the grain be ground fine, and divested of the husk, the bread will
be deprived of much of its pleasant taste. When intended for consumption
in the farmer’s family, it is usual to mix a certain portion of wheat with
the seed before sowing, or the mixture may be made after they are ground
into flour, which is the better practice. ‘The proportions may be one third
of rye and two thirds of wheaten flour, and this combination makes a
sweeter bread than that made solely of wheat.

Enemies. — Rye is subject to most of the diseases which attack the order
of plants to which it belongs, such as rust, mildew, burned-ear, and smut-
ball. But there is one remarkable disease, which, although it is sometimes
found in wheat, is much more common in rye. It is called the ergot, the
French name of a cock’s spur, which the diseased grain resembles in shape.

82 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

By some perversion of the vital functions of the plant, the embryo, ot
germen, instead of growing into a regular seed filled with farina, shoots out
a lung, black, fungus-like substance, several times the length of a common
seed, which rises above the chaff, and has the appearance of a slender pyra-
mid, slightly bent on one side. ‘This substance is soft, and easily broken or
cut, and is uniforvA in its internal texture, without any husk or skin over it.
It is not only destructive to the grain, but very poisonous when eaten mixed
with the flour.

Figure 46 is Pilkinton’s machine for cleaning smutty grain, and to take
out chess, onions, and heavy grit.

THE OAT.

Varieties. — Of all the cultivated grains, oats are the easiest of culture,
and the most certain and prolific in their product. There are several
varieties. Fig. 47 represents two of the most marked and useful.

Fig. 47.

That represented in the cut a is the White or Common Oat, known by
its white husk and kernel, and is the kind most commonly cultivated. The
Siberian or Tartarian Oat (6) is a black or brown grain, thin, rather small,
and turned mostly to one side of the panicle or ear. The straw is large
and reedy, but it is usually very productive, and is well calculated for poor
soils und exposed situations. The Red Okt, known by its brownish-red
husk, thin and flexible stem, and firmly attached grains, is an early variety,
suffers but little from winds, makes good meal, and suits exposed situation

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 83

and late climates. The Poland Oat is known by its thick, white husk,
awnless chaff, solitary grains, short, white kernel, and short, stiff straw ;
it requires a dry, warm soil, and is very prolific; the black Poland oat is
regarded as one of the best varieties. The Dutch Oat has plump, thin-
skinned, white grains, mostly double, and the large ones sometimes awned.
It has larger straw than the Poland, but in other respects resembles it. The
Potato Oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned, white grains, double
and treble, and with longer straw than either of the few preceding varieties.
The Georgian Oat is a large-grained and very prolific variety. The
Imperial Oat is the heaviest raised in the United States, and by many is
preferred to all others; it is a clean, bright, plump, heavy grain, yielding
a large proportion of flour and nutritive matter. It is hardy, and yields
well in the Northern and Middle States. The Eygptian Oat is grown
in large quantities south of Tennessee, and is very well adapted for the
South.

Soil. — The soil for the oat may be almost any kind whatever, from the
stiffest clays, to moss, or bog, provided it be laid sufficiently dry. ‘They will
produce well on reclaimed bog and mountain; but as these usually grow
straw luxuriantly, especially if they have been improved by paring and
burning the surface, a green crop should be taken the first year, which will
allow time for the active properties of the ashes to subside; and the follow-
ing year oats may be considered a certain and productive crop.

Preparing the Land. — The preparation of the land for oats is less than
for any other crop. It is almost always the first crop on newly broken-up
lands, and, as it succeeds best on a soil not too finely pulverized, it is sown
after a single ploughing. In regular rotations, oats are chiefly sown after
grass. It is sometimes sown upon land not rich enough for wheat, that has
been previously under green crop. One ploughing is generally given to the
grass lands, which should be done as soon in spring as the state of the
weather and the other labors of the farm will allow. When oats succeed a
green crop, the preparation of the land is the same as that for wheat.

Sowing and Culture. — The period for sowing oats is generally from the
beginning of March to the middle of April. The month of March is consid-
ered by many to be the best for seed-time. ‘They are sometimes sown in
February, also in the autumn; but the crops sown at a later period of the
season have, in most cases, been greatly more productive. The quantity
of seeds is from four to six bushels to the acre. In sowing oats, the
quantity must be regulated by the shape and size of the grain, as well as by
the condition of the soil. Land sown with potato oats, for instance, requires
less seed, in point of measure, than when any of the other sorts is used,
first, because this variety litters better than any other, and, having no awns,

84 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

a greater number of grains is contained ina bushel. Some varieties, tov,
are more leafy than others, and require to stand further apart; m general,
however, four bushels will be necessary on medium soils, and, in poor,
upland soils, as many as six may be required.

Grass-seeds ay be sown in spring with oats, in the same manner as with
wheat or barley. ‘The young clover and grass are, however, in danger of
being smothered by the oat crop, unless when it is sown very thin. If,
therefore, through necessity, this system should be adopted, the oats should
be sown thin, on well-prepared land, and the smaller seeds harrowed in
when the plants are sufficiently strong to bear the surface being stirred.
When the land is in a highly pulverized state, it may be better to sow the
seeds of the clovers and grasses immediately before giving the last turn of
the harrows for covering the oats.

Being usually sown after grass Jand, oats are more apt to be overrun
with thistles, and other large weeds, than any other crop. These are to be
cut over with the weed-hook, or pulled up by the weeding clips, betore the
crop comes into ear.

Reaping. —'The reaping of oats is performed with the scythe or sickle.
It may, with great convenience, be performed with the scythe, and should
be done when the grain becomes hard and the straw of a yellowish color.

Fig. 48.

The crop should be cut before it is dead ripe, to prevent the shedding of the
grain, and to increase the value of the straw for fodder.

Enemies. —'The diseases of the oat are few. Sometimes it is attacked
by smut, but more commonly by the wire-worm, or larve of insects, which
generally abound in newly broken-up lands. To guard against these, delay
ploughing the land, especially if long in grass, until immediately before
suwing.

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 85

INDIAN CORN.
Varieties. — The varieties of corn cultivated in this country are quite
numerous, distinguished by peculiar characteristics of the grain, cob,
&c., and are frequently enumerated and described as follows :—

Fig. 49.

Yellow Corn .—The Yellow Gourdseed, so called from the resemblance
of its long narrow grains to the seed of the gourd; this has 24, and occa-
sionally even more rows. ‘The genuine King Philip, with 8 rows; a hardy
plant. The Stour, or yellow flint corn, with 12 rows; also the Sioux
variety grown in Pennsylvania; also the Sioux and Gourdseed mixed, 16
rows.

White Indian Corn. — This includes the White Flint, White Flour Corn,
and White Sugar or Sweet Corn, and the White Gourdseed. The Genuine
White Flint is the twelve-row corn, raised in Virginia. The White Flint
nas 10 rows. The Early White Flint, and White Flour Corn, has 12 rows.
The Peruvian Corn has 8 rows. The Pennsylvania—called, in Maryland, |
Smith's Early White—has 8 rows. The New Jerseyhas8 rows. The New
York, 10 rows; and Mandan Indian Corn. The Early Sugar Corn, with
shrunken grains, has 12 rows.

Blood-Red Indian Corn. — Varieties are as follows : —Common-sized
Hemetite, with 12 rows and red cob; red cob with white grains; red cob
with yellow grains; red cob with brown grains; red cob with white
gourdseed ; red cob with gourdseed and yellow flint; white cob with red

86 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

grain ; speckled red and yellow grains on a white cob; the same on a red
cob: the dwarf Hemetite, commonly called Guinea corn; blue corn with
10 rows; the celebrated Dutton corn, &c., &c.

Of these numerous varieties, some are best adapted to the Southern States
—‘the white and yellow gourdseeds; others to the Middle States— the
gourdseed and flint varieties, pure or mixed; whilst the heavy flinty-
grained kinds are almost exclusively cultivated in the Northern and Eastern
States, to which they are specially adapted by their disposition to grow and
mature with great rapidity, and thus accommodate themselves to the short-
ness of northern summers. Like all early maturing corn, they are dwarf-
ish, though very productive. The effect of the longer and warmer sum-
mers, in more southerly situations, is to favor greatly the growth of the
stalk. The time taken by different varieties in growing and maturing dif-
feis exceedingly. In the Southern and Middle States the crop occupies the
ground from five to seven months, whilst in the Northern and Eastern States
the ears come to maturity in three or four months.

Among the varieties of corn cultivated for special purposes are the White
Flint, used for making hommony ; the Flour Corn, with a round, thick grain,
filled with a snowy white powder, resembling starch, much used for grind-
ing up with buckwheat, in the proportion of about one fourth or one fifth of
the corn, giving the buckwheat-meal a lighter color, and otherwise improv-
ing it; the Early Jersey truck corn, a middle-sized ear, with white and
rather flinty grains, the earliest corn raised for the market, —two kinds,
the white and the red cob; and the Small Flinty-grained corn, ne
raised for parching or poppirg.

Preparation of the Land for Planting. —In the Middle States corn is
planted in all conditions of the land ; but in Virginia and Maryland it gener-
ally follows the wheat crop, upon which all the farm-yard manure has been
spread. In the upper portion of Delaware and in Pennsylvania, the crop is
generally put upon a grass sward or clover lay. Where the soil is a stiff
clay, much labor is bestowed in ploughing deep, then rolling, and reducing
to the finest tilth by means of harrows. As a general rule, after a sward
has been turned, care is taken not to harrow so deep as to reach and drag up
the sods, which are suffered to lie and decompose, thus furnishing nutriment
to the corn, and keeping the ground loose and favorable to the spreading of
the roots. Many farmers spread lime upon the land intended for corn, in
the autumn or winter, previously to ploughing. Others put the lime dress-
ing on the ploughed ground.

Season for Ploughing. — With regard to the best time for ploughing,
this must depend much upon the character of the soil. Late fall or winter
ploughing has been thought useful in turning up and exposing to perish the

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 87

grubs and other insects which have retreated below the surface for winter
quarters ; but in Pennsylvania this practice is now generally abandoned in
favor of spring ploughing.

The roller, when used, must be drawn in the direction of the furrows,
and never crosswise. Then follows the drag-harrow, in the same direction,
being the last instrument which, on flushed ground, is employed preparatory
to planting. The harrowing should be continued until the surface of the
inverted sward is completely broken up and pulverized.

In the Middle States, it is customary to prepare the ground for corn by
a method called listing, or double furrowing ; that is, ploughing so as at
first to turn two furrow-slices together, leaving a middle space, which is
afterwards ploughed out by turning an additional furrow on each side.
This places the ground in narrow lands or ridges, consisting of four furrow-
slices, with deep intervening trenches. The width from the middle of one
land to the other is generally about four feet. In signing out for planting,
a plough is run across these narrow lands, so as to strike out rows generally
four feet apart. The plough which performs this cross-ploughing is imme-
diately followed by a boy who drops four, five, or seven grains of corn
directly opposite the middle of each of the ridges, and the operation of plant-
ing is completed by a man who covers the seed with a hoe. Corn should
be planted as early in the spring as the weather will permit. The usual
time of planting in the Floridas is early in March, whilst in the Eastern
States it cannot be done, as a general rule, before the middle of May.

Planting. — After rolling, and then harrowing well, the rows are struck
out very shallow, and the corn is planted in hills, 3, 4, 43, or 5 feet apart
or dropped in rows from three to five feet asunder, so as to leave the stalks
when thinned out, about one or two feet apart. In this last case, the tillage
has of course to be conducted in the direction of the rows, and never cross
wise, as is practised when the grain is in hills at regular distances. Wher
the growth is high, and the soil rich, the rows should be further apart thar
where the growth is low, as is the case with the Northern varieties, which
may be planted three feet apart.

Manuring. — Whenever manure can be spared for the corn crop, it wil
always make a good return. It may be spread broadcast upon the land
previously to ploughing, or, what is better, spread upon ground that has
been flushed up in the autumn or winter, and then lightly ploughed in. It
the Northern and Eastern States, where the summers are short, a libera
quantity of manure is generally required to assist in forcing the crop u
early maturity. When not enough is at hand to afford a good dressing
broadcast, it is advisable to apply a portion of short manure to each hi)
just before planting. Ashes are an excellent manure for Indian corn, ane

88 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. =

inay be merely dropped upon the hills. It is common to make a mixture ot
these with lime and plaster ; but there is no doubt that the main benefit of
the mixture proceeds from the live ashes. Poudrette is also applied, and
with good effect —one gill to each hill; it pushes the young corn forward
with such rapidity as to place it very soon beyond danger from the grub,
cut-worm, and other insect depredators. ‘The same end may also be pro-
moted by soaking the seed twenty-four or thirty-six hours in solutions of
saltpetre, urine, the drainings of the stables and the cattle-yards. Strong
solutions of copperas, blue vitriol, are sometimes used. ‘To protect the seed
against its enemies, some farmers soak the seed twelve to twenty hours in
hot water, in which are dissolved a few ounces of crude saltpetre, and then
add (say to eight quarts of seed) half a pint of tar, previously warmed and
diluted with a quart of warm water. The mass is well stirred, the corn
taken out, and as much plaster added as will adhere to the grain. This
impregnates and partially coats the seed with tar.
Number of Grains to the Hill, and Depth
Fig. 50. of Planting.—W here there is reason to ap-
prehend much mischief to the young plants
from blackbirds, crows, insects, and other
vermin, it is best to plant four to seven grains
in each hill, so that some of them may havea
chance to escape. The deficiency is usually
attempted to be made up by replanting other
grain, but the product of this replant is too
often feeble, and so late in maturing as to
be frequently injured by the frost in autumn,
A better plan is to replant with the surplus
of other hills, though this requires a damp
and very favorable condition of the weather.
As to the proper depth of covering for the
seed, much difference of opinion exists.
The corn-planter here figured has the ad-
vantage of pushing the grain down in the
ground to the depth of four inches, where
it leaves it covered up, and in close contact
with the soil; 4 to 8 grains are deposited in
each place; the grains passing down from
each corner of the machine. <A deeper
covering would either cause the grain to
s rot, or prevent it from rising.
Tillage.—The corn once copia its tender blade pushes through the

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 89

ground, usually in about a week or ten days, and even sooner when the
seed has been soaked. Although the field is generally left at rest until the
plants have all fairly risen above ground, before tillage of the crop is com-
menced, some begin with the harrows even before the corn is up. The
first objects to be effected are to keep the ground stirred and free from grass
and weeds. Where danger is apprehended from worms, by which it is su
frequently attacked, many maintain that the tillage should not commence
very soon, so that, some other vegetation being allowed to start up, the
young corn will thus be in a measure spared; whereas, if the ground is
perfectly clean, the worms, having nothing else to feed upon, will, of course,
destroy all the young corn. Instances may occasionally occur where this
practice may prove disadvantageous, but, as a general rule, the young corn
cannot be kept too clean, or the ground about it too loose.

The modes of tillage vary exceedingly, not only with the variations in
soil and climate, but with the views of different persons in the same
locality. On stiff clay soils, there is no doubt that harrowing just before
the proper time for the corn to come up favors this process, by loosening
the tenacious soil, especially where a timely rain does not occur to soften
the earth. After the corn appears, the harrow should be kept going until
-the ground is rendered perfectly loose, hands following with hoes or
short rakes, to clear the corn which may be covered. Then comes the
plough, which, in the Southern and lower portion of the Middle States, is
often used to turn a furrow from the young corn. This operation is termed
bar-ploughing, because the bar of the plough is run next to the plants. A
few days after this, the process is renewed, and the mould-board being
turned next the corn, the loose earth is thrown back again. Many think
that this second ploughing, called moulding, ought not to be left longer
than a few hours before the earth should be turned back again. In some
places ploughs are still used for this purpose with wooden mould-boards,
as these serve best to push the loose earth before them, crumbling and
spreading it about the plants more advantageously than ploughs furnished
with smooth and polished iron mould-boards. Some use narrow, deep-cut-
ting ploughs, which do this work with comparatively little labor to the horse,
and render the soil near the corn much more permeable by the roots, and at
the same time quickly accessible to the rain and atmospheric influences.
Whatever tends to favor the extension of the roots downwards, serves to
place the crop beyond the vicissitudes of the season. There is, perhaps, no
plant which withstands the effects of drought so well as Indian corn, whilst
young ; but when its top blades begin to bé heavy, its demands for moisture
increase so as to cause it to suffer greatly from very dry weather. Heat and
moisture are the great promoters of its growth

90 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

The farmers in some of the finest districts in Pennsylvania have, of late
years, made much less use of the plough, in cultivating their corn, than
formerly. They now generally content themselves with moulding, or
throwing a single furrow on each side of the young plants, leaving a space
of from three to three and a half feet untouched. The space left is after-
wards worked by means of shovel-ploughs, and cultivators (Fig. 51), which
completely destroy the grass and loosen the ground. ‘This mode of culture

Fig. 51.

is more easily and economically performed than the old plan of ploughing
the whole space between the rows, and leaving the surface completely level.
If the land be sufficiently loose and deeply stirred, there is little use in hill
ing it. It is sometimes said that corn requires hilling to support it. Nature
disproves this, by the stiff, bracing roots thrown out by this plant at the
time they are wanted, and for this very purpose. On wet lands, planting
on ridges and hilling may be advisable, but such lands should not be chosen
_ for corn. If wet, drain thoroughly, in the first place. Allow no weeds to
grow, and do not fear to stir the surface in dry weather. Many farmers
deem the use of the plough altogether unnecessary, and even injurious, and
conduct the tillage of the corn crop throughout, first with the drag-har-
row, and successively with the cultivator, horse-hoe, and hand-hoe.
Thinning and Suckering. — As quickly as possible after it is ascertained
that the plants are in a thrifty condition, and no longer in danger of being
destroyed by the cut-worm and other enemies, they are thinned out, so as
to leave only two or three in a hill. Or, should they stand in rows or drills,
the plants are left apart one or two feet. ‘The operation of suckering takes
place some time after thinning, and consists in tearing off the side-shoots
which often sprout from the bottom of the main stalk. It is thought, how-
ever, by many, that this practice is more hurtful than beneficial, injuring

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROP». 91

the growth and development of the corn, ar+ lessening the product of both
fodder and grain.

Harvesting the Crop. — This is done diflerently in different parts of the
country. In the Northern and Eastern States and Pennsylvania, the corn
is usually cut off at the surface of the ground, as soon asthe grain his
become glazed, or hard upon the outside, and, whilst the blades are still
green, put immediately into shocks, and thus left some time standing in th:
field. ‘The corn, after becoming sufficiently dry, is husked and cribbed, and
the stalks, with all the attached fodder and husks, are used for provender.
In the Southern and southerly portions of the Middle States, the corn is
commonly husked in the field, the stalks having previously had the blades
stripped below the ears, and the tops lopped off above the ears. When,
therefore, the ear has been separated, the naked stalk is left standing with
the husk, which is soon after eaten by the cattle. In some parts of the
Western States, where the crops are extremely luxuriant, with the absence
of facilities to get the grain to market, it is common to husk out and secure
enough of the corn for family use, and then turn the hogs and cattle into
the field, to consume the remainder. Cracked corn is obtained by means
of the corn-cracker (Fig. 52), and is valuable in many cases.

By the first of these me-
thods, the crop may be se- Fig. 52.
cured before the autumnal 7A
rains, with all its valuable
fodder, and the ground
cleared in time for a winter
crop of wheat orrye. The
juices retained by the stalk
are sufficient to nourish the
corn to maturity. By the
second mode, there is always
a loss in the grain product,
which is never so well filled -
after the blades and tops =
have been removed in a :
green state. tt ze

Preserving Corn.—This is usually done by stowing away the ears,
cleared from the husks, in small or narrow granaries, called cribs, the
sides and ends of which are constructed of logs or laths, so as to leave
spaces of about an inch, or more, for the circulation of air.

Fig. 53 is a corn-sheller, and Fig. 54 a corn and cob-crushing machine
now much in use. The first-named (Reading’s Patent,) will shell from
four hundred to five hundred bushels of corn per day. The crusher is

FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

used at the South and West for the purpose of eracking or crushing the

corn and cob together.

Big: 53.

Diseases and Enemies.—Besides the
birds, cut-worms, wire-worms, &c.,
that we have already alluded to, corn
suffers from other diseases, the chief
one being a dark or blue-black spongy
growth, which sometimes takes the
place of the blighted ear of corn. The
mass sometimes grows until five or six
inches in diameter, and is to be con-
sidered a luxuriant or rank species of
fungus. As the species of what are
called parasitic plants, to which this
belongs, are so readily destroyed by
applications of common salt, there is
reason to believe that soaking the seeds
well in salt water, previously to plant-
ing, or scattering salt over the grounds,
will prevent this disease.

A reddish kind of rust sometimes appears on the leaves, but seldom does

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 23

much apparent injury to the ears, unless it becomes extensive. However,
the same rust sometimes fixes upon the stalks, and causes them to decay.
When this is near the ear, or the decay is extensive, the plant produces but
little grain. The cause is attributed by some to bruises and wounds in-
flicted by inconsiderate cultivation, especially as the tassel, wrapped in its
own leaves, may be seen formed in the plant when it is quite young. It
sometimes happens, as the effect of storms, that the pollen is blown or beaten
off the tassel before all the silk has protruded from the ear. The conse-

F quence of this is a failure in the development of grains in the extremity, or
other portion where the silk was deficient. It has been urged, among the
reasons for allowing the suckers to grow, that, being later in tasseling
and less exposed to high winds, they assist to promote the process of fecun-

_ dation after the tassels of the main stalks have shed their pollen. As an
evidence of this, it has been stated that the earliest ears are always best
covered with grain, while those which push late often exhibit a quarter or
a half of naked cob, —the consequence of imperfect impregnation.

BUCKWHEAT.

Description. — This is the grain produced by the Polygonum fagopyrum
(a), ¢artaricum (6), and a few other species.

Soils. — This plant thrives well on soils which are too poor for all other
kinds of grain, either of the spring or summer varieties. It grows on dry,
sandy svils, provided only that the drought be not felt precisely at the time

94 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

when the plant stands most in need of moisture; it then yields as plentiful
a crop as any other kind of grain; but if the ground be in a situation some-
what more accessible to moisture, the crop is so much the more to be
depended upon. It also thrives on heath and marsh lands, provided the
latter have been previously drained. It is cultivated to great advantage on
clearings of this description, and is very useful in preparing the soil for the
reception of other kinds of grain. In sandy districts, buckwheat is the only
crop which succeeds when sown alternately with rye; in such situations, it
takes the place of other fallow crops; it is alse sown on lands where rye
has been grown. It, however, thrives better as a fallow crop on land
which has been used as pasturage, or left in repose for a few years. On
richer soils the plant grows more vigorously, but only in the stalk, rarely
producing so much seed as when grown on proper soils. A small quantity
of manure is advantageous to it, but a large quantity makes it grow too
strong in the stem. When the land on which buckwheat is to be grown
requires manuring, it is usual to give it only half the usual quantity, the
remainder being reserved till after the harvest. Manure furnished by furz
is particularly well adapted to this kind of grain.

Culture. — The sowing of buckwheat, even on the lightest soils, must
always be preceded by two ploughings, in order to destroy the weeds. On
account of its sensibility to cold,—the slightest hoar-frost injuring it, —
the sowing must be deferred till all danger of cold nights is over. The
middle of May is recommended; and, if sown later, it is liable to be
attacked by the white frosts of autumn, before its seed is ripe. The quan-
tity of seed sown on a given extent of ground is about half of that used in
sowing wheat; sowing more thickly is injurious.

The success of buckwheat is considerably affected by the weather to which
it is exposed in the several stages of its growth,— more so, perhaps, than
any other grain. It requires dry weather immediately after sowing, and
springs up during the time of the greatest drought; but, after putting forth
its third leaf, it requires rain, in order that its leaves may be developed
before the appearance of the flower, which soon follows. During the long
time for which it continues in flower, this plant requires alternate rain and
sunshine to facilitate its growth and enable its flowers to set. The flowers
drop off during thunder-storms, or even on the occurrence of electrical phe-
nomena unaccompanied by rain. Violent easterly winds also cause it to
wither before its flowers are set. After flowering, the plant again requires
dry weather to bring all its seed to maturity at the same time, and insure
an early harvest. ‘The success of buckwheat is therefore somewhat preca-
rious, depending not only on the general state of the weather throughout
the season, but also on the time of sowing, a week earlier or later often

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 95

making a great difference. By sowing it in three or four different portions,
at different times, a crop may be made sure of. The seed should be simply
covered up with the harrow, and not in furrows, and requires no further
attention than guarding it against the depredations of birds, to which it is
very subject.

Harvesting. — The ripening of the grain is very unequal, for the plant is
continually flowering and setting. It must, therefore, be cut at the time
when the greatest quantity of grain is ripe. It sometimes happens that the
first flowers do not set, or that they produce nothing but barren seeds, des-
titute of farina, while those which come out later yield better seed. But
the grain will ripen, and even the flowers set, while the crop is lying on
the ground after cutting, especially if rain fall. This occurrence is, there-
fore, considered favorable.

The produce of buckwheat is, therefore, uncertain. When it is sown
after a corn crop, one good harvest may be expected in about seven years ;
in the same interval, three medium and three bad harvests may be expected.
But when sown on land which has been left in repose, or laid down to grass
for a few years, we may reckon upon one good crop out of two.

Uses. — Buckwheat furnishes an important article of food for man. As
a fodder-plant, too, it is excellent, and, when cultivated for this purpose,
may be depended upon as well as any other plant. It may either be given
to cattle as green-meat, or else made into hay. It dries but slowly, but
does not spoil when left on the ground without being turned. The culti-
vator who wishes to raise it for this latter purpose should choose a year in
which the plant has been particularly successful, in order to obtain a good
supply of seed; this, he will find, will yield him as good a return as any
other. When raised for this use, it may be sown on the stubble of a corn
crop, or, still better, after vetches which have been mown early in the sea-
3on to be consumed as green-meat.

Another purpose to whicls buckwheat has been applied, and for which it
appears, 4rom the usual rapidity and exuberance of its growth, peculiarly
adapted, is the ploughing down, to add fertility to the land. This can be
done when the soil is too far exhausted to produce clover for a similar
purpose. It is one of the most economical and convenient manures which
the farmer can employ. A small quantity of seed, costing a mere trifle,
3ows a large surface, and gives a great crop. When in flower, first roll,
and plough it in, and it will be soon converted into manure. This crop is
recommended as an effectual destroyer of that frequent pest of the field,
ealled couch-grass, quick-grass, &c. For this purpose it must be sown aa
ear'y in the season as frost will permit. and, as soon as it gets into flower,

96 FARMER’S IfAND-BOOK.

rolled down, and turned under with the plough. Another crop is then
sown on top of the first, and harrowed in; and, if the season be not unfavor-
able, it will ripen and afford a harvest before frost sets in

THE POTATO.

Propagating. —The potato may be propagated from its seeds, and it is
in this way that new sorts are obtained; or it may be propagated by plant-
ing the tubers, in which case plants similar to the old are produced. The
approved practice is either to plant the tuber entire, or cut it into pieces, sa
that one eye shall be upon each, the tubers to be planted being those which
were taken up before the stems had begun to decay in autumn.

Varieties. — The varieties of the potato are numerous, the most obvious
distinctions being the early and the late. First: the earliest kind, used by
gardeners, generally termed forced potatoes, and not intended for field-
culture. Second: early kinds, which may be subdivided according to their
order of ripening, as— the Early Shaw, American Early, Early Champion,
and others, being the earliest sorts in cultivation; the Early Red, Cape of
Good Hope Kidney, and the Bread Fruit, an intermediate class. Third:
the later kinds, forming the common subjects of cultivation in the field,
such as the Red Apple, Bedfordshire Kidney, Lancashire Pink, and numer-
ous others. Fourth: those of a large kind, but coarse, as the Late Cham-
pion, Ox Noble, and the Surinam. Fifth: the different varieties of Sweet
Potato.

Sorls. — The soils best adapted to the potato are of the drier and lighter
class. In wet clays the return is inferior in quality and productiveness
Deep, dark peat, often produces large crops; and it is one source of great
value in this plant, that it can be cultivated successfully even on soils of a
peaty character.

Culture and Tillage. — in the commen course of farming, potatoes are
cultivated by the plough, but they are frequently, also, and this, in many
cases, with great convenience, cultivated by the spade; thus, in woods in
new countries, in plantations and steep banks inaccessible to the plough, or,
in certain cases, in peat too soft to bear the treading of cattle, the spade may
be beneficially substituted for the plough. Its cultivation, however, upon
the larger scale of farm-culture, must necessarily be performed by the
plough and the working cattle upon the farm.

The potato forms a good preparative crop for any of the cereal or eatable
grains, and it may follow any crop of corn. Sometimes potatoes are planted
upon land newly broken-up from grass; in this way they may be cultivated
beneficially in regard to produce; it is, however, a deviation from the
general rule, that the potato should follow a crop of corn and be succeeded

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 7

by one. As in the case of preparing land for the summer fallow, the land
intended for potatoes is to be ploughed before winter, receiving a furrow of
eight or nine inches in depth. The ploughing should be lengthwise, so as
to keep the ridges dry, and prepare the ground for early tillage in the
spring, at which time, as soon as the other labors of the farmer will allow,
and the land is sufficiently dry, it is to be cross-ploughed, and harrowed by
repeated double turns of the harrow in every direction. The roller also, if
necessary, is to be employed to reduce the soil, and all the root-weeds are
to be carefully collected by the hand, and carried away to be formed into a
compost. The land is next to be ploughed in a direction crossing the last
ploughing ; or, rather, the ploughs may cross the field diagonally, because,
as it is always desirable to make each alternate ploughing cross the pre-
vious one, and as the next ploughing which forms the drills will be in the
direction of the former ridges, all the ploughings will thus be made to
traverse each other. When this second ploughing is given, the land is to
be again harrowed and rolled, if necessary, and al: the root-weeds are to be
industriously collected and removed as before.

The proper manure for the potato is common ‘arm-yard dung, but any
other putrescent manure that can be obtained may be applied. As soon as
the dung is spread along the hollows of the drills, the potatoes are to be
planted. The potato-sets should be cut ten or twelve days before planting
them, by which the cut part acquires a skin or hard surface. The sets are
placed directly upon the dung in the row, about ten inches from one an-
other. The planters, carrying them in baskets, gently place them upon
the dung, directed by the eye, as nearly as possible, at the distance required.
A transverse section of the drills, with the dung and potato-sets placed
upon it, will appear thus :—

The sets are now to be covered by splitting eacn drill so that the top of
the new drill formed is immediately above the bottom of the old one, and
this simple series of operations completes the planting of the potato. The
usual period of planting is during the month of April, continued till the
middle of May. The early potatoes should be pianted earlier.

In a fortnight or more after planting, the whoie field is to be harrowed.
The effect of this tillage is to partially level the ground. When the plants
have got aboye ground, and appear distinctly in rows, the horse-hoe is to

98 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

pass along each interval ; and, following this, the hand-hoers, each with the
common hoe, are to hoe the rows of plants carefully, cutting up all weeds
&c. After an interval, as a fortnight or more, the horse-hoe, with side-
coulters, is again to pass along the intervals. Immediately succeeding this,
the hand-hoers are to follow as before. This is generally sufficient to clean
the land in an effectual manner, though sometimes, when there are many
weeds, a third hoeing may be necessary. The last operation is raising the
earth to the stems of the plants. This is done by a double mould-board
plough passing once along the intervals, and throwing up the earth towards
each row. A transverse or cross section of the ground will then appear
thus : —

Fig. 57.

This, in all cases, completes the culture of the potato, the crop requiring
no further attention uniil the tubers are ready to be taken up, when ripe,
which may be done with a three-pronged fork, shovel, or a plough with the
coulter detached, in dry weather and before frost.

It has often been recommended to pinch off the blossoms of the late pota-
toes, so as to prevent the formation of seeds, and to obtain a greater crop.

Uses. —'The starch or fecula of the potato may be obtained separately by
simple means. It is perfectly nutritive, but does not undergo the panary
or bread fermentation. It may be mixed with the flour of wheat in a given
quantity, so as to produce good bread.

It may be given in its raw state to nearly all our domestic animals. It
requires merely to be washed, which is done by various simple means. But
although potatoes may be given to live stock in their raw state, — and it is
frequently convenient to give them in that state, — yet various benefits may
arise from giving them steamed or boiled, and in this state they are relished
by every class of domestic animals, affording food ina high degree nour-
ishing. Even the dog will fatten upon them. Steamed potatoes, mixed
with cut straw or hay, may be given to horses of every kind; but it is
observed that steamed food is not generally so good for ruminating as for

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS, 99

other animals. To hogs they are given with the best effect; also to poultry
mixed with meal.

Diseases. — The chief diseases of the potato are the curl, the worm, and
the scab. The curl is indicated by the curling of the leaves, and their con-
sequent diminutive size. To avoid this, seed from newly reclaimed or
mountain land must be used. Using unripe tubers is also said to be a pre-
ventative of the disease, and especially such as have not produced seeds.

The worms sometimes attack the tubers in the ground, and greatly injure
them in certain situations ; but they may be destroyed by spreading some salt
on the ground before planting. ‘The scab must be remedied by giving good
tillage to the land.

Independently, however, of the curl, and every other known enemy, a
very extraordinary failure has taken place, since 1832, in the potato crop,
extending, in many cases, over entire districts, and, in others, partially con-
fined to portions of particular fields. This is generally termed the potato
rot, and will be found treated at length in Chapter XII.

Potato-planter and Seed-drill. —This is a new labor-saving machine,
consisting in the employment of an endless apron, placed beneath a
hopper, and containing a series of cavities, by means of which potatoes
of a proper size for seed are conveyed from the hopper to a discharge-
spout, through which they fall into the furrow at regular intervals.
Those potatoes which are too large for seed, are conveyed on the apron to
a knife at the lower end of the hopper, by which they are cut to a suitable
size. ‘I'hus, at one operation, the seed potato is cut, planted, and covered.

SWEET POTATO,

Description.—A perennial, low-creeping vine, the fine, tuberous roots
of which are an esteemed esculent. Although a native of the Southern
States, it flourishes also in the Middle States, but cannot be cultivated
with profit north of the 41st degree of North Latitude. In the lower
counties of New Jersey, in parts of Delaware, and in the Southern States,
it attains its highest perfection, and is in great request as an article of
food.

Varieties. — These are quite numerous, and chiefly distinguished by
size and color, which latter ranges from a rich yellow to white and red.
The weight varies from a few ounces to several pounds.

Soils —The soils naturally adapted to the sweet potato are those of a
light, mellow, sandy character; hence its large yield in New Jersey, and
others of the seaboard States. It refuses to grow in heavy clay, or stiff
loam soils. .

Culture. —This plant was formerly propagated by setting the tubers

100 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

out in beds early in spring, whence they were subsequently transplanted
to hills arranged at a distance of five or six feet apart, and the trailing-
vines were not permitted to strike root. The great labor of planting and
cultivating them in this mode, has, however, led many to abandon it, and
resort to the ridge system of planting, which is thus managed. The
ground must first be well broken up and harrowed, after which, with a
plough, throw three furrows together to form a ridge, and finish up the
ridges with a weeding-hoe, or fine rake, by drawing up the earth on both
sides to about the usual height of potato hills. Then open a trench on
the top of each ridge, drop in the slips five or six inches apart, and cover
them with the soil to the depth of two inches. By this mode of planting,
not only is dess ground occupied, but less labor also is expended in its
preparation, and in planting the roots. When the crop has matured,
clear away the vines, and turn a furrow from both sides of the ridge,
when the potatoes can be readily taken out with the hands, or by the use
of the hoe.

Preservation of the Crop.—Place the roots in a dry cellar, the same day
they are taken out of the ground, and cover them up close with chaff, or
dry earth. During very severe freezing weather, close the windows of
the cellar entirely.

GROUND PEANUT.

This legumine (the Arachis Hypoywa of naturalists) is very profitably
cultivated in many of the Southern States. It succeeds best on light
sandy soils, where it produces from twenty to forty bushels. It also
furnishes a good lot of forage. It is sown in drills about four feet apart.
Soon as possible after plants appear, they should be worked with a light
plough. They quickly spread over the surface. The blossom is of a
light yellow; and, singular in this respect, the seed pod grows into the
earth, where the seed matures. When ripe a fork is used to loosen the
soil, when they are hand picked, dried and stored under cover.

SUGAR-BEET.

Soil.—The sugar-beet requires a deep, rich mould, somewhat retentive
of moisture, but yet not tenacious. Its richness should proceed less from
the use of manure at the time of sowing, than from the effects of previous
applications. The sweetness for which these beets are so much esteemed,
depends in a great measure on the quality of the soil; those grown in
poor, light soils, having usually an earthy taste. There are some lands
in which the superior varieties will not attain their ordinary size, or even
acquire a tolerable flavor, while in the same locality, inferior varieties
will be produced, which have an excellent taste.

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 101

Culture.—Plant in rows, at a distance of two feet six inches from each
other, and at intervals of twelve inches in the rows. Deep ploughing
and pulverization of the soil are essential to the full development of the
root. Put the seed in the ground during March or April, and carefully
tend the plants during the early stages of their growth, clearing out all
weeds, and thinning the plants where necessary. Moist weather is the
most suitable for performing these operations, and a cultivator may be
used with advantage.

Manuracture or Sucar.—From the root of this variety of the beet,
sugar of a very superior quality has been made in the United States;
but, to insure its profitable production, the manufacture should be con-
ducted on a large scale. In the extraction of sugar from the beet root,
seven different processes are used, which we shall endeavor to describe.
Before proceeding to do so we may here remark that besides the fact
that beets are very much liked for their culinary uses, they are pro-
bably the most certain crop for feeding to stock that can be grown.

The best cattle seen at Smith Field are so fattened.

Cleansing the roots.—This is done by washing them in long, wooden
cylinders, having open sides, which, by the aid of steam-power, revolve
rapidly in large cisterns filled with water. The roots are thrown in at
one end of the cylinder, carried around a spiral screw, and ejected at
the opposite end. This is, however, a very imperfect mode of cleaning
them ; for, if the roots have been grown in a stiff soil, large masses of
earth will still be found adhering, which will not only prove injurious to
the teeth of the crushing rasp, but will also lessen the value of the cake
as food for cattle. The large roots being frequently hollow, and much
decayed at the crown, the acid generated by this putrid matter injures
the saccharine yield. Matter of this character cannot be removed by any
process of washing; and nothing proves so effectual as the knife, with
which all impurities may be scraped away, or cut off, those parts only
being retained which will yield a superior quality of sugar. The ends
of the tap-roots, as well as the lateral fibres, both of which are not
only useless for the production of sugar, but positively injurious, should
be excised, and fed to the cattle and hogs, which will greedily devour
them, together with the scrapings of the roots.

Crushing or Rasping. — Except where maceration is practised, this
operation is always performed by the aid of the rasp, which is a wooden
cylinder, the outer circumference of which is armed with steel saws,
placed transversely at a distance of half an inch apart. In width it is
asually about thirteen and one-half inches, and in diameter about twenty-
three inches. Driven by steam-power, these rasps make 900 revolutions

9* :

102 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

in a minute, and crush into a smooth pulp between 5000 and 6000 pounds
of the root per hour.

Pressing the Pulp. — Instantaneous fermentation being a result of the
heat engendered during the process of rasping, no time is lost in pressing
the juice out of the pulp, which, as it falls from the rasp into a square
box placed beneath, is removed by a deep wooden or copper shovel, and
put into a bag. This is then conveyed to a wicker frame, placed upon a
hand-barrow mounted on wheels, the pulp spread evenly in the bag, and
the mouth of the latter doubled down, to prevent the escape of pulp when
on the press. Over this is placed another wicker frame and another bag,
until the pile contains thirty or forty bags and as many frames, when the
whole is placed on a wooden platform, resting on the bed of a hydraulic
press, and pressure applied. After the juice has all been extracted, the
pressure is removed, the bags emptied of the dry cakes, and the press
made ready for another load. A pair of these is always required, so that
while one is in use, the other may be in preparation. The juice flows
into a cistern constructed beneath the floor, whence it is at once pumped
into a defecating pan, which is so placed that the contents may flow out
through a pipe into the evaporator.

Defecation is conducted in a copper pan, to which, after it has been
nearly filled with juice, heat is applied by means of fire or steam. Ata
temperature of 162° Fahrenheit, cream lime is added, in exact proportion
to the amount of the contained acid, which is ascertained by chemical
tests. The lime is intimately mixed with the juice, by stirring the solu-
tion with a wooden spatula, after which it is allowed to rest, and the heat
raised to the boiling-point, when the ebullition is suddenly checked by
shutting off the heat. When the juice has settled, and become clear, it
is drained off into the first evaporator,—the scum and sediment being
carefully excluded. These are subsequently poured into bags and pressed,
to extract the juice contained in them, after which the residue forms a
valuable addition to the dung-heap.

Evaporation.—The clear, defecated liquor flows into a copper pan,
called the evaporator, until it is about one-third full, when a small quan-
tity of animal charcoal! is added, and heat applied. If the juice threatens
tv overflow the pan during the process of boiling, the addition of a small
quantity of tallow causes its immediate subsidence, and facilitates
evaporation.

Clavifying.—This is done in copper pans, thirty inches deep, twenty
inches in diameter near the top, and eleven inches in diameter near the
bottom ; each one being furnished with a small brass spigot at the lower
end. A copper strainer, supported on three feet, and covered with can

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 103

vass, fits into each clarifier near the bottom, and on this about one hun-
dred pounds of powdered animal charcoal is placed. This is covered by
another copper strainer and cloth, on which the sugar is permitted to
flow until the pan is filled. After an interval of some time, the discharge
spigot is opened, and the syrup allowed to flow out slowly into a cistern,
from which it is pumped up into the condenser for a final evaporation.
The pans are carefully refilled as rapidly as they are emptied. ‘Twice
each day the charcoal is thrown out of the clarifiers, and replaced by
fresh coal from the kilns. As some of the saccharine matter remains in
the carbon, the latter is then used to receive the juice from the defecator
as it passes into the first evaporator, and the sugar thus extracted. The
charcoal is then washed, and again calcined for future use.
Concentration.—After the clarified syrup has been evaporated in the
condenser until it marks 41° on the saccharometer, its fitness for crystal-
lization is tested by drawing some of it out between the finger and thumb.
If the thread breaks, and the end draws up towards the finger in a hard
mass, it is ready for the purpose. Sometimes it is tested by blowing a
portion of the syrup through the holes of a skimmer, when, if it be suffi-
ciently tenacious to form air-bubbles, which, on falling to the ground,
burst, and crumble into a white powder, the fire is immediately with-
drawn, and the syrup drained off into large coppers, placed in the air,
where it is allowed to cool for about two hours, during which time it is
occasionally stirred to promote a thorough and regular cooling of the
whole mass. It is then run off into flat pans, made of tinned iron, in
which it is left to crystallize, in a cool situation, for twelve hours, or even
longer. These pans are subsequently removed to a stove, in which they
are stood on end, to allow the molasses to drain off; and, in about twelve
days from the first operation, the sugar is ready for a market. About
one-tenth of the contents of each pan being saturated with molasses, this
portion is separated from the rest of the cake, mixed with the molasses
which has drained from the pans, reduced with water to 17° of the sac-
charometer, evaporated to 21°, and again subjected to the clarifying pro-
cess. Being then concentrated to 41°, it furnishes second quality sugar,
which, if well made, equals that of the first quality for refining purposes.
When sufficiently concentrated for crystallizing, this second quality syrup
is poured into the coolers, whence it is removed to cone-shaped earthen
pots, in which it is allowed to cool for a time, and subsequently placed
inastove. In twenty-four hours the stoppers are withdrawn from the
pots, and the molasses allowed to drain off. Six weeks afterwards this
sugar is ready for market. When the loaves of sugar are taken out of
the moulds, the apex of each is found to contain a considerable quantity

104 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

of molasses. These portions are broken off, reduced by water, and treated
as before described. All the scum which rises during the boiling process
is carefully removed, and washed with water, to obtain from it all the
contained sugar; and this water being again used to reduce the impure
sugar from the pans, nothing is lost.

Proportions of Lime used.— At the commencement of the sugar-making
season, when the roots are fresh and good, 4 pounds of lime are sufficient
for the defecation of 225 gallons uf syrup; but, as the season advances,
more lime is required, until, at length, when vegetation has commenced,
7, and even as much as 8 pounds are necessary for the purpose. There
is then danger of an excess of lime, which is usually taken up by an acid,
added when the syrup is undergoing the final condensation. Sulphuric
acid, reduced by water, in the proportion of 44 parts of water to 1 of acid,
is used for this purpose —the precise quantity being ascertained by
chemical tests. If a greater quantity is added than is requisite to neu-
tralize the excess of lime, the sugar is objected to by the refiners, as its
use subjects them to much inconvenience and some loss.

SUGAR-CANE.

Description.—The sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum,) is a perennial-
rooted plant, very susceptible to cold, and consequently restricted in its
cultivation to the zone between 35° and 40° on each side of the Equator.
In the United States, its cultivation cannot be advantageously pursued

higher up than about the 32d degree of North Latitude, and the cane
here dies down annually, unless cut before frost sets in. Like the bamboc

THE HEAVY OR FIELD OROPS. 105

and Indian corn, the sugar-cane belongs to the family of the grasses. It
attains the height of from six to twelve feet, and is surmounted by a ter-
minal panicle, one to three feet long, of a grayish color. This hue is
derived from the long, soft hairs, surrounding the flower, which, with the
lengthy, broad leaves, impart to the plant a beautiful appearance. The
stems, filled with a spongy pith, are very smooth and shining, and the
flowers, which are small and very abundant, are covered externally with
the before-mentioned silken hairs. It flowers in the West Indies after
the lapse of a year, though rarely ; but never in Louisiana; consequently
the seed can seldom be procured, except by importation from Otaheite or
China. The development of seed interferes with the production of sac-
charine matter.

Varieties.— Several varieties of cane are grown in Louisiana and the
West Indies —the Otaheite, the Brazilian or Creole, the Bourbon, the Red
Ribbon, the Blue Ribbon, the Yellow Ribbon or Java, the Green Ribbon,
and the Grey. The two first are most extensively cultivated in the West
Indies, while the others are confined to the sugar districts of the Southern
States. The Red Ribbon is best suited to the climate, all the others being
readily affected by cold; but it degenerates very rapidly. In Louisiana
the sugar-canes “ rattoon,” that is, produce a new growth from the roots,
for two or three years in succession; but the planting must be renewed
every two or three years, though in the West Indies, where a similar
course of rattooning is pursued, a plantation lasts from six to ten years.

Soil.—A rich alluvion seems best adapted to the sugar-cane, and it is
grown on both the red and black lands of the Island of Cuba. The
former appears to be composed of coral reef, in a disintegrated state,
mixed with vegetable carbon and oxide of iron, which imparts to it the
red hue. The latter, a rich black mould, evidently of vegetable origin,
and probably the remains of old swamps, produces canes of a very supe-
rior character, which yield a better sugar than those grown on the red
soil. It is a very exhausting crop, and the rich lands of Louisiana have
become so much exhausted by a continuous cultivation of sugar-cane, that
they are only kept in tolerable condition by the application of costly fer-
tilizing compounds. The adoption of a judicious system of rotation would
have prevented this result, and must yet be resorted to as the only means
of reclaiming the land, and restoring it to its original fertility.

Pianting and Rattooning.—In Louisiana, as also in the West Indies,
new canes are not planted every year, as, owing to the absence of frosts
in the latter region, and the usual mildness of the winter in the former,
the roots retain their vitality for years, and continue to produce canes
equally as good as those cut from the first planting. This system of

106 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

culture is commonly designated “rattooning.” In making selection of
plants from which to make cuttings, those with healthy, succulent tops,
are preferable to the hard, woody ones, and much benefit is derived from
exchanging cuttings with neighboring plantations. In renewing a field,
the canes are usually planted in rows—a space of six feet in width being
left between each row. A series of holes is made in the ground in a
direct line, in each of which two joints of cane are deposited, and the
earth loosely drawn over them. Two are planted in each position, to
guard against the possibility of one failing to germinate. Beyond an
occasional hoeing, the sugar-cane requires but very trifling attention.
Securing the Crop.—Seizing the canes with their left hands, the opera
tors draw them forward, and, with a single blow of their machétes, or

Fig. 59.

cane-knives, cut them off close to the root. Then stripping them of their
leaves, they divide them into two or three pieces, and throw them aside
to be collected by the women and children, who load them into the carts
which carry them to the mill.

Crushing the Cane.—When a sufficient number of canes have been cut
to supply juice enough to fill all the kettles and clarifiers, the process of
manufacture is commenced by crushing the vanes between powerful rol-
lers, to which they are fed by an endless series of slats. The juice flows
into a pan placed beneath the mill, whence it is conveyed to the clarifiers,
or pumped up into a receiver, and distributed where required. After
passing through the mill, the crushed canes are conveyed away by
another endless apron, from which they are taken, and spread in the
sun to dry. When properly cured, they are stowed away in sheds, and
furnish a supply of fuel for the succeeding year.

Testing the Strength of the Juice.— A quantity of the juice, as it flows
from the mill, having been collected in a copper vessel called a “ test-
dipper,” the ‘“‘saccharometer” is plunged into it, and the height at which
it floats carefully noted. The saccharometer is a hollow tube, with a
bulb at one end, loaded with shot, to keep it in an upright position. It
has a scale of degrees marked on it, rising from 0° up to 50°, and, when
placed in pure water, it stands at 0° of the scale. As each degree marks
19 parts in 1000 of the solution to be tested, if, when plunged in the
juice, the saccharometer indicates 10°, the contained sugar may be knowr:

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 107%

to equal 19 per cent., and so in proportion for each additional degree.
If the juice is thin, it will mark the same on the saccharometer, either
in the hot or cold state; but, as a cold syrup will mark more than one
which is hot, it is necessary to add three degrees for the hot syrup, in
order to ascertain its density after it has cooled. Four degrees must be
added for syrup containing molasses. When recently expressed, cane
juice is opaque, frothy, of a yellowish-green, and sometimes of a greyish
color, and consists of two parts, easily separated by filtration—one being
a perfectly transparent fluid, of a pale yellow color; the other a dark
green fecula, which rises upon the boiling liquid in the form of scum,
The specific gravity of the juice usually fluctuates between 10° and 15°
Baumé; and this difference in density depends on the age of the cane,
the climate in which it is grown, the nature of the soil, the character of
the season, the temperature of the atmosphere, etc.

Defecation.— This operation is conducted in pans, placed over flues so
arranged that the heat can be shut off from one of the pans without
interfering with the others. As soon as the receiving-tank is full, the
juice is conveyed into the defecating pans by a wooden gutter, and, when
slightly warm, a sufficient amount of cream of lime is added to neutral-
ize the free acid, and to assist in coagulating the vegetable albumen con-
tained in the solution. With the increase of heat all the impurities rise
to the surface in the form of a thick, dirty crust, leaving the clear juice
below. On the first appearance of ebullition the dampers are closed,
and the juice allowed to stand about twenty minutes, when it is drawn
off from the bottom, and conveyed to the first clarifier; after which the
defecator is cleansed, preparatory to receiving another charge. When a
sugar-boiling train is in full operation, one defecator is always full while
the other is being cleansed.

Clarifying. — This process is conducted in two iron pans, lined with
sheet copper, which are placed much nearer the fire, but higher up than
the defecators. They are both in a line with the flue; but the first,
which is the largest, and most remote from the fire, is placed about two
inchés lower down than the second. Both pans being surrounded by a
gutter, whatever overflows from the second during ebullition finds its
way back into the first, and all the impurities which escaped removal in
the defecators, and which are skimmed from the boiling liquid in the
clarifiers, pass through an opening at one side of the gutter into a scum-
kettle, placed alongside of the train. As soon as it settles, all the good
syrup is again returned to the first clarifier by the aid of a pump, with
which the scum-kettle is furnished. The juice, after being thoroughly
purified in the clarifiers, is next conveyed to the evaporators.

108 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Evaporators. — These are also two in number, the first being the
largest, and placed next to the second clarifier. The smallest, which is
directly over the furnace, is called the “teach.” Both these pans are
surrounded by a copper curb — that around the smallest pan being the
highest. This prevents the syrup from the first evaporator boiling over
into the second, while at the same time it allows the overflow from the
“teach”? to find its way back into the first evaporator. The ebullition
being most violent in the “ teach,” owing to its position directly over the
fire, its contents are reduced very rapidly; but it is continually reple-
nished with syrup bailed from the first evaporator, which is supplied in
turn from the second clarifier, that from the first, and the first from the
defecators. When the ‘“teach”’ is filled with a rich golden-colored fluid,
which has ceased to froth, and from which the steam escapes in short
puffs, the sugar-master tests its condition by taking a little of the syrup
between his finger and thumb, and drawing it out in the form of a string.
If sufficiently boiled to ‘‘strike,” the fire is withdrawn, and the syrup
bailed into a gutter, by which it is conveyed to the coolers, distant about
ten feet from the “teach.” :

The Coolers are oblong troughs, usually about ten feet in length, five
in breadth, and twelve inches deep, made of two-inch pine-boards. They
are arranged in a double row, parallel with the train, and each has sufli-
cient capacity for three “strikes,” all of which are not run into one
cooler consecutively, but into three coolers alternately, until that number
are filled, when three more are brought into use. While cooling, the
sugar is agitated with a small wooden rake, which is drawn through the
mass once after each “strike.” This promotes crystallization, and in a
few hours the sugar sets or grains. A few days subsequently the sugar
is dug out of the coolers, and carried in tubs to the purging-house, where
it is emptied into hogsheads, the bottoms of which are perforated, to
allow the molasses to drain away.

Purging.—W hen the sugar enters the purging-house, it is a dark brown
mass, containing about forty per cent. of molasses; but, if the house be
even moderately warm, this soon commences to drip into a tank placed
beneath the open joists upon which the hogsheads rest. As the sugar
settles down, the hogsheads are replenished, either with sugar which has
already been purged, or with fresh material from the coolers. At the
expiration of a month, or thereabouts, the hogsheads are headed up, and
stored, or sent off to the place of shipment.

Clayed Sugars, requiring a different process for their purification, are
produced in the following manner: ‘The floor of the purging-house is
covered with boards, pierced with holes sufficiently large to receive, and

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 109

hold upright, conical moulds made of clay or metal, each having an aper-
ture at the small end. These holes are stopped with a plug of wood or
cane, and the moulds filled with sugar which has been boiled to a greater
consistency than that intended for the coolers, and then agitated for some
time in a wooden box, to facilitate its cooling, and promote the formation
of crystals. Each mould will contain between eighty and one hundred
and twenty pounds of hot sugar. When the contents of the moulds are
well crystallized, the plugs are removed, and the molasses allowed to flow
out. This operation is much forwarded by pouring over the sugar in
each mould a thin, creamy paste, made of porous clay, diluted with water,
which has the effect of washing the crystals of sugar, by the percolation
through them of the water from the clay, while the latter remains on top
in a solid mass, which may be removed without injury to the sugar, after
it has parted with all the water. This operation may be repeated several
times, but at the expense of the quantity of sugar, which is washed away
in proportion as it is purified. When removed from the moulds, three
kinds of sugar are comprised in each loaf: a mixture of sugar and mo-
lasses at the apex of the cone, next brown, then yellow, and, at the base,
white sugar. These different grades of sugar are separated, and either
crushed between rollers, or pounded into fragments with a mallet, pre-
paratory to being dried over a fire, or in the sun, It is then ready for
market, and is the sugar commonly used by refiners.

Boiling by steam is now practised on many plantations, and has several
advantages over the old process, though much more costly. Vaporization
is conducted more rapidly by this method, and the color of the sugar pro-
duced is much lighter, whilst all danger of overheating is obviated.
Steam is applied, either by coils of pipe, or by a series of tubes, through
which it operates on the bottoms of the pans.

Boiling in vacuo, the apparatus for which was invented many years
since by Lord Howard, is a more complicated and more expensive pro-
cess than boiling by steam. The apparatus is merely a closed metallic
vessel, from which the air and condensed steam are discharged by pumps
as fast as generated by the heat beneath. As water boils in a vacuum
ut 90°, it follows that the low temperature at which water can thus be
discharged from solutions of sugar, materially assists in preserving the
color of the product, and as granulation will take place to some extent in
the vacuum pan, if the process be properly conducted, the sugar when
discharged will be full of grain, and soon become solid at a slightly lower
temperature.

Yield.—From 3000 to 6000 pounds of sugar have been produced per
acre in the West Indies; though in Louisiana about 1000 pounds is con-

10 '

110 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

sidered an average crop, with 20 gallons of molasses. The crop has, of
late, considerably diminished, owing, it is thought, to the exhaustion of
the old seed-stock, and efforts are being made to introduce new cuttings
from the West Indies and South America. The real cause is, most
probably, the continual cropping to which the land has been subjected
for a long period, and new canes will not restore vitality to an exhausted
soil.

Chemical Components of Sugar.—Modern chemistry has developed the
fact, that there is very little difference between the components of sugar
and those of many other substances which it is totally unlike—as starch,
saw-dust, linen rags, &c. Water and carbon, the principal constituents
of sugar, are found united in the like proportions in all these substances;
and an eminent chemist, some time since, procured an ounce of sugar
from a pound of linen rags.

CHINESE SUGAR-CANE, OR SORGHO.

Description.—The Chinese sugar-cane (by some botanists classified as
the Holcus saccharatus, and by others as the Sorghum saccharatum,)

Fig. 60.

shoots up a long, straight stalk, interspersed with knots, from which
spring, alternately, long, wide, tapering leaves, which curve gracefully
downward at theends. The stalk tapers gradually from the base upward,
and is covered with a very smooth coating, resembling somewhat that of
Indian corn, which becomes harder with age. It flowers in a panicle at

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 1

the top, changing from green, the primary color, to successive shades of
violet, and finally to purple. The seeds, which at first are merely soft,
green husks, fill with farinaceous matter as they mature, and become
plump and hard. The stem varies in altitude under different circum-
stances, and, in a deep, black loam, reaches the height of sixteen feet ;
but, on the poorer soils, it ranges from six feet upward. The root,
which is very strong and hard, in an open, porous svil, sends down its
fibres to a great depth. The entire plant very much resembles broom
corn in the early stages of its growth, and cannot readily be distinguished
from it except by experienced persons. It endures cold much better
than Indian corn, and does not sustain injury from the ordinary autumnal
frosts.

Soil and Climate. — These very nearly correspond with those adapted
to the growth of Indian corn, and the sorgho grows luxuriantly in rich
bottom lands, or in moist loamy soils, well manured.. Experiments made
in Algeria, France, and the United States, have, however, demonstrated
that the best results are obtained on loose, deep soils, of a sandy char-
acter, so situated that they can be irrigated at pleasure. Irrigation
should only be practised during the early stages of growth, and when the
cane is most rapidly developing, as, at a later period, it proves delete-
rious by impeding the elaboration of saccharine matter, and increasing
the per centage of water. It will also produce a fair crop on dry, gravel
soils, too poor to yield a remunerative crop of other plants.

Culture.—Plough deep, and harrow the ground carefully, so as to break
up and pulverize all the clods. Subsoil ploughing is very beneficial, as
the soil is thus loosened to a considerable depth, and allows the delicate
radicles of the growing plant to descend through the interstices. When
the ground has been properly broken up, prepare the seed for planting
by soaking it for twenty-four hours in tepid water, to which saltpetre has
been added in moderate quantity; seeds deprived of the hulls germina-
ting in much less time than those sown with the hulls on. In northern
latitudes, the saving of four or five days in spring is a matter of consider-
able importance to a plant of such slow growth as the sorgho. Sow the
seed in rows, about the same time as Indian corn. Let the rows be four
feet apart, and leave an interval of eighteen inches or two feet between
the plants in the rows. One seed is sufficient to deposit in each place, as
each one sends up several shoots, or seed-bearing stems. Cover them
lightly with earth; and, after the plants have attained the height of twelve
or fourteen inches, turn up a furrow against them with the plough, after
which, use the hoe frequently to keep them clear of weeds. If cultivated
with the view of obtaining the seed, or for the purpose of extracting the

112 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

sugar, the sorgho is planted in hills, like Indian corn; but, if it is in-
tended for fodder, a larger yield is obtained by resorting to the drill-
system. One quart of seed will suffice for an acre, planted according to
the first-named system; but a much larger quantity will be required for
the last. Fifty to sixty bushels of seed have been obtained from a single
acre of canes, and between nine and ten tons of dry fodder. During the
first few weeks after it is planted, the sorgho makes but little progress,
except in penetrating the soil with its roots; but it usually matures in
ninety days, and, at farthest, in one hundred and twenty.

Uses as a Fodder Plant.—When grown for fodder, two and three cut-
tings may be obtained from it— the first being made just before the
period of blossoming. The plant immediately sends up new shoots, its
leaves are renewed, and its flowering panicles expand with great rapidity.
This is a property also possessed by Indian corn, but in a much more
limited degree. Though the milk of cows fed upon it is measurably
decreased, yet the quality is greatly improved, and the animals gain in
flesh. Fed to cattle in the green state, it does not produce those symp-
toms of flatulency frequently resulting from the use of green corn or
succulent clover. The plant in its natural state is a wholesome and
nutritious food for animals; yet, after the sugar has been extracted from
it, it proves positively injurious. Nothing being then left but the indi-
gestible woody fibre, it collects in large masses in the stomach, ulti-
mately causing the death of the beast which has unguardedly been fed
upon it.

Curing the Fodder and Saving the Seed. — Cut the stalks in the morn-
ing, after the dew has evaporated ; and after they have sufficiently dried
on the ground, tie them up in bundles, shock them up in the field, and
let them stand thus for some time before stacking them or putting them
in the barn. In whatever situation they are finally placed, a free circu-
lation of air must be secured through the whole mass, to prevent it from
heating. If grown for the seed, and to make sugar, one set of hands
should strip off the leaves, a second set follow after, and cut off the seed-
top, with one or two feet of the stalk, while a third set cut up the cane
close to the ground, and throw it into piles, to be conveyed to the
crusher. ‘Ihe sced-heads, after being made up into small bundles, must
be hung up in a dry place, until an opportunity offers for stripping the
seed, which can be done with the machine used for broom-corn. The
coloring matter contained in the hulls of the seed is so easy of separa-
tion that the tissues of the poultry fed on it assume a purple color, and
their excrements are dyed of the same hue. This coloring matter, which
is tasteless and innoxious, may possibly hereafter prove useful in the

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. lls
arts. The flour made from the grain has a violet hue, which disappears
when carefully bolted, but again becomes apparent when manufactured
ints bread, which, however, digests very well, and is pleasant to the
taste.

Making Sugar on a small seale.—Cut the canes just after a hard frost,
as they will then yield a larger per centage of sugar. Remove the upper
joints, as they contain but little sugar, though they will furnish good

Fig. 61.

se
:
———————————___

molasses. The stalks should be passed through a crusher (Fig. 61) seve-
ral times, in order to completely express all the contained juice. As
the juice comes from the mill, filter it through a blanket, for the pur-
pose of removing the fibrous matters, cellulose, and starch; then add a

sufficiency of cream lime to render it slightly alkaline, which may be
10 * H

114 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.

ascertained by testing it with litmus paper. Boil the juice until a thick
green scum rises to the top, which must be removed with a skimmer,
and the liquid again filtered. Then boil the solution rapidly until it has
lost half its bulk, when the fire must be diminished, and the syrup cen-
stantly stirred, to prevent it from burning at the bottom. After it has
attained the consistence of ordinary sugar-house molasses, which may
be known by taking a spoonful out and allowing it to cool, the syrup
may be drawn off into tubs, and left to granulate, which will usually
occur in three or four days. The syrup may be clarified by the addition
of one ounce of bone-black to each gallon of the solution, and boiling
the whole together. Filtration will then exhibit a syrup which is nearly
colorless: the sugar made from which will be of a very light brown
color, but may be whitened by the method described under the head of
Sugar-Cane. When bone-black is not used, the sugar, after granulating,
may be put into conical bags, made of very coarse canvass, and suspended
over shallow vessels in a room where the temperature ranges between
85° and 90° Fahr. In a week or ten days the bags will be found to con-
tain good brown sugar. Dissolve this in hot water, and to every 100
pounds of sugar add the white of one egy mixed with cold water. Boil
for half an hour, skim carefully, and filter, to remove the coagulated
albumen. For the manufacture of sugar on a large scale, the general
process is the same as that pursued in the extraction of sugar from the
West India cane.

Alcohol is also produced from the sorgho, by fermentation and distil-
lation in the usual way. By crushing the seed and stalks together, a
double yield may be secured; for, on maceration with hot water, the
heat acts upon the starch contained in the grain, and transforms it intu
sugar, while the residue of the juice from the canes will produce good
alcohol.

Vinegar. — The raw sap of the sorgho, like all saccharine juices, will
rapidly take on the acetous fermentation, and furnishes a very superior
vinegar. For this purpose, bruise the stalks in a mill, throw them into
a quantity of water sufficient to cover them a few inches, and let them

ferment at leisure. The vinegar must be racked off once or twice, to
remove from it all foreign substances.

AFRICAN SUGAR-CANE, OR IMPHEE.

Description.—This plant, similar in appearance and general character
to the sorgho, was discovered in the Island of Natal, in the year 1854,
by Mr. Leonard Wray, through whose instrumentality it has been intro-

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 115

duced into the United States. Under favorable circumstances, one acre
of the cane, will yield about 4000 pounds of dry sugar; and, if the plants
are permitted to mature their seed, twenty bushels of grain may be gath-
ered from one acre. This grain makes excellent flour, and may either be
so used, or be fed to cattle and poultry.

Varieties.—Fifteen different varieties have already been noted by Mr.
Wray, who thinks there are yet many more. Planted in a rich, alluvial
soil, the largest attains a height of ten or fifteen feet, and requires from
four to five months to mature. The seed-head, which is of considerable
size, coutains many thousand seeds, of a sandy-yellow color, and gene-
rally measures from twelve to eighteen inches in length. By the aid of
very imperfect machinery, sixty per cent. of juice has been obtained from
the stalks, yielding fourteen per cent. of sugar, fully equal to the best
West India cane sugar.

Soil.— The Imphee will flourish in almost any soil, but arrives at
greatest perfection in a rich alluvion, or in a loamy soil, containing a
tolerably large admixture of vegetable mould. The latter description
of soil, strong heat, and considerable moisture, are deemed essential
to the proper development of the plant, and the plentiful production of
its saccharine matter. The occurrence of dry weather a short time pre-
vious to its maturity, not only materially increases the yield of juice, but
also the amount of sugar. The use of animal manures, salines, and am-
monia, is considered to be injurious, because, though tending to the
formation of larger plants, they render the juice so mucilaginous and
saline, as totally to unfit it for the manufacture of sugar.

Rattooning. —In a warm climate, a crop of rattoons will be produced
in six or seven months from the period of planting the seed, thus doubling
the yield in that space of time.

Culture.—To expedite the germination of the seed, soak them in warm
water twenty-four hours before planting; then, having marked off the
land into rows at a distance of three feet apart, plant the seed at inter-
vals of twelve inches in the rows. This distance should never be lessened,
but rather increased, as each seed will send up from ten to twenty stalks,
forming a large stool, which occupies considerable space. Keep the
plants free from weeds by the use of the cultivator, and turn a furrow
against the roots as soon as the plants have attained a sufficient height.

Uses. —Imphee can be made available for all the purposes for which
sorgho is used, and the experiments which have been made with it in
the United States, would seem to indicate a larger yield of sugar from it
than can be obtained from the sorgho.

116 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

THE COTTON PLANT.

Description.—The cotton plant (the generic name of which is Gossyp-
vum,) ordinarily grows to the height of five feet, though it sometimes in

very fertile soils, attains double that altitude. In general appearance it
somewhat resembles the okra plant, but it is more branching ; and the
leaves, which are hoary and palmate, with sub-lanceolate, and rather
acute-lobes, are smaller, as well as of more uniform shape. The long
and jointed branches are occasionally bifurcated, and at each joint bear
a boll or capsule, containing the wool and seed. The filamentous sub-
stance, called cotton, consists of tubular hairs which arise from the sur-
face of the seed-coat. They become flattened by drying ; and if, while
in this state, they be immersed in water, and examined by the aid of a
microscope, they exhibit the appearance of di: tinct, flat, narrow ribands,
with occasional joints. Each boll is accompanied by a broad, indented
leaf, which springs from the same joint, and rests upon a foot-stalk three
or four inches in length. The blossom, which is two or three inches
long, and cup-shaped, is white during the first day after its appearance,
but gradually becomes red. It closes slowly, and is soon after detached
by the growth of the young boll, when it withers and is cast off, leaving
the boll enclosed in a capacious calyx, having three divisions, with ser-
rated margins. The woody part of the plant, which is white, brittle, and
spongy, is covered with a thick, brown, pliable, and tough bark. The
root, which is tuberous, penetrates deeply into the soil, and, as a conse-
quence, the plant is much less affected by drought than many others.
Varieties.—The different varieties of gossypium may be classed under
four distinct species: Gossypium indicum, or herbaceum, indigenous in

Bae..

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 117

China, India, Arabia, Persia, Asia Minor, and some parts of Africa,
2. Gossypium arboreum, a tree-cotton, indigenous to India. 3. Gossypium
harbadense, the Mexican or West India cotton, of which the Sea Island,
Upland, and New Orleans are varieties. 4. Gossypium Peruvianem, or
accuminatum, yielding the Peruvian, Pernambuco, Maranham, and Bra-
zilian cotton, and especially distinguished by its black seeds, which
adhere together very firmly. The principal varieties cultivated in the
United States are the Sea Island (G. arboreum), known as the ‘long
staple,” from its fine, white, silky appearance, and long fibres ; the green
seed (G. herbaceum), or “ short staple,” known in commerce by the name
of upland cotton; and two kinds of Nankin or yellow (G. barbadense)—
the Mexican and Petit Gulf. Beside the varieties above enumerated,
three others are classified by botanists: G. vitifolium, or vine-leaved
cotton ; G@. hirsutum, or hairy cotton; and G. religiosum, or spotted-bark
cotton.

Soil.—The best cotton lands are those having a deep, soft mould, which
may be readily penetrated by the rays of the sun. These imbibe with
facility the stimulating gases abounding in the atmosphere, and allow all
excesses of moisture to sink so deep beneath the surface, as to be ina
position to do no injury to the delicate roots of the young plants. Land
which is sandy and spongy, equally with that of a hard, close, and reten-
tive character, is entirely unsuited to the proper perfection of the cotton
plant.

Culture. — Cotton is most successfully cultivated in the lower parts of
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and in Texas. ‘he winter is
usually mild in these States, with very slight frosts; and the summer,
though hot, is tempered by the sea breeze, which prevails during a great
part of each day. Various systems of planting are followed in the
cotton-growing States, but that most generally adopted is the ridge.
The land, after being properly ploughed and harrowed, is thrown into
ridges about four or five feet apart, from centre to centre; and a furrow
being run in the middle of each, the seed is deposited at intervals, vary-
ing, under different circumstances, from six to twenty-four inches, and
pressed into the loose soil with the foot. In rich river grounds, the rows
are frequently six feet apart, and the plants distant three feet from each
other in the rows. Planting generally commences about the 15th of
March, and the proportion of seed sown is about one bushel to the acre,
which leaves a margin for accidents by worms and otherwise. When
the plants come up they are carefully weeded, and the cultivator or a
harrow run through them to keep down the growth of grass. The har-
row illustrated in Fig. 63 is useful in keeping the ground open, and clear

118 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

of weeds. A light furrow is then turned against the plants, to cover ur
and effectually destroy the young grass which has escaped the hoe. In

Fig. 63.

* rough ground, where there is danger of covering up the plants with the
plough, hoes follow after, to remedy any mischief which may have been
done. As soon as the plants have acquired sufficient strength to with-
stand drought and defy the worm, they are carefully thinned out by
hand, only the strongest and most likely being aliowed to stand. The
general rule is, to keep the earth loose and well stirred; working deep
and close at first, but more shallow and remote as the crop approaches
maturity. It is of importance to work the ground late, and cultivation
never ceases until the branches of the plants interlock with each other.
Ten hands are considered enough to cultivate 100 acres of cotton with
ease; but a good crop requires at least twenty hands to pick it. Some
planters top their cotton, while others never do so. Whether the prac-
tice is beneficial or otherwise, has not yet been decided—no observations
having been made as to the practical result. Interchangeable husbandry
is required by no plant more than cotton, and nowhere is it more essen-
tial than in the Southern States, where continual cultivation during the
dry weather of spring and summer, conjoined with the rapid growth of
the plant, break up the soil, and leave it in a condition to be washed
away by the first violent autumnal rains. Rotation with cereals is, how-
ever, productive of no good, as the latter require, in a great measure, the
same kind of food from the soil; and hence soils which fail to produce
cotton, are alike incapable of growing grain crops. Judicious green
fallowing is the easiest as well as the cheapest mode, not only of renova-
ting, but also of preserving cotton lands in good condition. Fields

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 119

intended for fallow should be ploughed as deeply as possible in mid-
winter, and all descriptions of stock should be carefully excluded from
them. In spring sow them with turnip seed, and, when the leaves of
the young plants are fully formed, turn them under with the plough,
and sow a second time. Three or four crops may thus be ploughed in
during one season, greatly to the benefit of the land, as by the decom-
position of vegetable matter carbonic acid is produced, which is a
powerful solvent of phosphated alkalies; and, by the turning under
of those grasses and weeds not readily decomposable, a degree of fria-
bility is imparted to the svil which will enable it to profit from atmo-
spheric action.

Manures.— As the cotton plant draws upon the soil for a very large
amount of the phosphates, potash, and lime, the manure applied should
be such as will return to the earth the same kind of material. Cotton
seed contains all these substances in large quantity; but, as a sufficiency
is not produced for the purpose, other articles must necessarily be brought
into use. ‘The refuse of manufactories will supply the potash, while
bone-dust will furnish the phosphates, and Peruvian guano the nitro-
genous compounds. Every planter, however, has the ability to supply
from his own plantation a large portion of the manure necessary for the
sustenance of his crops, and this he may do with very little trouble.
Instead of hauling the stalks from the corn and cotton-fields into the
barn-yard, they may be more profitably ploughed under at once, thus
allowing their elements to return immediately to the soil, without being
subjected to loss from evaporation. Their place in the compost-heap may
be supplied by litter, leaves from the forest, grasses, weeds, and muck
from neighboring marshes, as well as from the ditches and fence-rows on
the plantation. Weeds abound in alkalies, and therefore furnish profit-
able vegetable matter, while muck and peat, being decayed vegetable
matter in mass, in this concentrated form contain a large amount of
phosphates and alkalies, which, when mingled with the droppings of
animals, form a highly valuable compost. The compost-heap must be
well protected from the weather, or the soluble salts will be washed out
by the rains, and evaporated by the heat of the sun. Wood-ashes form
an excellent manure, and gypsum may be used with success on cotton
lands distant from the sea.

Picking. — The boles of cotton mature and open about the last of
August, or during the first week in September, when the operation of
picking commences. This work is done both by male and female hands,
each one being provided with a bag, slung over the neck and shoulders,
into which the cotton is put as fast as it is gathered. Large osnaburg

120 FARMERS HAND-BOOR.

sheets are placed at convenient points, into which the bags are emptied
when full. The general average for each hand ranges from forty-five to
fifty pounds per day. The freshly-picked cotton is dried upon scaffolds,
each of which is not over four feet in width, to allow it to be turned with
facility while drying. If rain threatens, the scaffolds are conveyed to
the cotton-house, near which they are always placed. After being per-
fectly dried, the cotton is prepared for market by separating the wool
from the seed.

Whipping the Cotton.—The first machine through which cotton is
passed is called a “‘ whipper,” and consists of a cylinder six or eight
feet in length, made of slats, reeds, or wire. One end is closed, and the
other open. The centre of the cylinder is traversed by a shaft, inter-
sected with rods reaching to within an inch of the sides. The cylinder
is placed in an inclined position, and the cotton fed into it from a hopper
resting upon the upper side, near the top, which is closed. The shaft
being turned by a crank, the cotton, as it falls from the hopper, is
whirled round by the rods until it issues from the lower end of the
cylinder—any contained dirt, sand, or leaves having meanwhile escaped
through the open sides of the “‘whipper.” ‘The cotton is then carried
to the gins.

Ginning. — Two kinds of gin are employed —one, called the “saw
gin,” being used for all the short-stapled cottons, while the other,
known as the “roller gin,”’ is confined to the Sea Island, or long-staple
The latter we shall first describe. This is a very simple machine, con-
sisting of two wooden rollers, about a half inch, or one inch in diameter,
revolving upon each other in opposite directions, and mounted upon a
wooden frame, to which is appended a fly-wheel, from two to three feet
in diameter. Motive-power is supplied by a treadle and crank, which is
operated by a man who stands in front of the rollers, and feeds the cotton
to them in small quantities. The perfect separation of the seed from the
cotton depends mainly upon the small diameter of the rollers, and the
slowness of their revolution. From twenty-five to thirty pounds can be
cleaned each day by one gin; previous to passing through which it is
sorted by women, who carefully remove from it all the yellow cotton, as
well as all the motes, &c., which may have passed through the “whippers”
with it. Each female examines and cleans from sixty to one hundred
pounds per day. After passing through the gin, and parting with its
seed, the cotton is again turned over to women, and subjected to a second
examination, when all remaining impurities are removed from it. As
this work must be well done, but thirty pounds per day are required from
each woman. Short-stapied cottons are cleared from the adhering seeds by

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 121

the “ saw-gin,” which is thus constructed: A wooden box contains within
it a roller, or shaft, of the same material, which, at every inch of its

Fig. 64.

length, carries a circular saw, about twelve inches in diameter, with
hooked teeth. Above, or in front of these saws, is placed a box, the part
of which next the saws is composed of metal slats, between which the
saws pass to the distance of an inch. This box being filled with cotton,
the revolution of the saws carries the cotton gradually around, until the
whole has been drawn through the slats, leaving the seeds behind. These
are then discharged, and the box refilled with uncleaned cotton. Consi-
derable waste attends this mode of separating the seed from the wool,
besides the injury done to its quality by the breakage of the fibres in
passing through the slats.

Packing.—The bags in which cotton is packed will usually hold about
400 or 450 pounds; and various methods have heretofore been used for
filling and compressing these bags or bales, all of which have been more
or less complicated and costly. An invention of Levi Dederick, New
York, has supplied the machine long needed —one combining great
power with simplicity and cheapness. It is portable, and can be moved
from place to place at pleasure ; is operated by a horse and capstan ; and,
with two men and a boy, will pack from twelve to sixteen bales of cotton
per day.

Uses.— Besides the cotton furnished by the plant, which is woven into
various fabrics, the seeds are also valuable for many purposes. They are
excellent food for cattle, furnish a very superior oil for table purposes,
and make the hegt manure which can be used on a plantation.

122 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK

TOBACCO PLANT.

Description.—This plant (known to botanists as Nicotiana,) was origi-
nally derived from the Island of Tobago, in the West Indies, whence its
present appellation. It is a very powerful narcotic, as well as a strong
stimulant to the nervous system, and, when taken into the stomach in
small doses, acts both as an emetic and a purgative. The smoke of
tobacco, as also the decoction and powder, are used to destroy insects
which infest the growing plants in gardens and fields. The tobacco
plant has a branching, fibrous root, from which springs a stem, varying
in height from three to six feet, round, hairy, and branching at the top.

The leaves are very large, of a pale green color, and covered with short,
glandular hairs ; those nearest the ground being the largest, but furnish-
ing the coarsest tobacco. The flowers grow in panicles on the ends of
the stem and branches; and the seeds, which are small, but very numes
rous, have a somewhat reniform shape, and brown color. While growing,
the tobacco plants require constant attention to free them from weeds,
and from the lower leaves, which, being coarse and strong, interfere with
the full development of the finer leaves at the top.

Varieties. — Botanists class many different species under the genus
Nicotiana, viz: Virginian (N. tabacum), large-leaved (NV. macrophylla),
shrubby (NV. fruticosa), sweet-scented (NV. undulata), common green (N.
rustica), panicled (NV. paniculata), clammy (N. glutinosa), curled-leaved

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 12%

(N. plumbaginifolia), primrose-leaved (N. pusilla), four-valved (N. quad-
rivalvis), dwarf (NN. nana), Langsdorff’s (NV. Langsdorfii), honey-wort (N.
cerinthoides), and Havana (NV. repanda). The Virginia tobacco is the
variety most generally grown in the United States, and the Havana (N.
repanda,) is t at from which the finest and most fragrant cigars are made.
Tobacco is cultivated to some extent in Europe, as far north as Sweden,
and it is also grown in Asia, Africa, and South America. ‘I'he common
green variety being more hardy than the Virginia, is cultivated in Ger-
many, and other northern countries, where the majority of the families
who have gardens raise a sufficiency for their own use; but, not being
properly cured, it is only used for smoking, and possesses but little value.

Raising the Plants.—The first process in tobacco culture is to make
provision for an abundant supply of plants; as, owing to the small size
of the seed, and the tardy growth of the plants, the young shoots would
soon be smothered by weeds if not carefully protected. New ground, or
land which has been a long time in grass, should be selected for the loca-
tion of plant-beds, because less likely to produce weeds; to guard more
effectually against which, and to insure a growth of thrifty plants, the
land should be burned over with brush, or cord-wood, which may be
moved from place to place with long iron hooks. Before burning new
ground, all the old roots should be grubbed up, the rubbish cleared away,
and the dead leaves raked off; and it would be advantageous to skim off
sod-ground with sharp hoes, before it is burned over. When the ground
has cooled off, and the ashes have been carefully removed, the soil should
be broken up with hoes, finely pulverized, and well raked. The land
having been laid off in beds, about four feet wide, and somewhat elevated,
the seed should be sown upon it in the proportion of a table-spoonful to
fifty square yards, well raked in with an iron rake, and the beds trodden
down to render them firm and compact. A thin covering of brush must
then be placed over the beds to keep them moist, and to protect the plants
from the frost. The beds should be prepared and sown as soon as the
frost is out of the ground. When the plants have attained a good size,
and there is no longer any reason to dread frost, the covering of brush
may be removed, and the beds weeded by hand; care being used to avoid
bruising the tender plants.

Soil and Climate.— Tobacco flourishes best in rich, light, alluvial,
loamy soils, or such as have been recently cleared. Lands which have
been long in grass, especially sheep pastures, produce excellent tobacco.
As it is an exhausting crop, it should not be planted too often on the
same land, but give place to grain and grass, which latter should be
allowed to remain on the ground for two or three years. This plant

124 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

arrives at full perfection only in a warm climate, and can never be
grown to advantage in elevated situations, in northern exposures, or on
wet and springy land. Although, being an annual plant, it may mature
even in Russia-and Sweden, yet the plants will be puny and devoid of
flavor. In moist and not very warm climates, like that of Ireland, the
plants may attain a very large size, but will be wanting in that superior
flavor which can be imparted only by sunshine, and pure, dry air. The
Southern States are well adapted to its culture, and produce chewing-
tobacco of a peculiarly rich flavor, though the fragrant tobacco of Cuba
surpasses it for smoking purposes.

Mode of Culture.—In preparing the ground, care must be used to
plough it deeply, and to completely pulverize the soil. Grass lands
intended for tobacco should always be ploughed the previous autumn ;
and all kinds of land intended for that purpose would be benefited by
being turned over before frosts set in. In the spring the land should be
manured, cross-ploughed, and well harrowed just before planting, which
is usually done during the months of May and June. The ground must
be laid off into ridges, by a single-horse plough, with three and a half or
four feet between the centres, according to the kind of tobacco which is
to be planted, and crossed at the same distances by a shovel-plough, or
one with a double mould-board. Every square thus made must be scraped
with the hoe into the form of a hill, in which one plant must be set.
Plants can only be set after a rain, and much care must be taken in per-
forming the operation; for if plants are well set they will grow quickly,
but bad setting will retard them. In case they die from drought, or are
destroyed by worms, others must be planted in their places. ‘The after-
treatment is very similar to that applied to Indian corn — the plough,
cultivator, and hoe being used alternately to keep down the weeds, and
mellow the earth. During the last ploughing, the middle of the day
should be chosen for the purpose, when the leaves, having wilted, will
not easily break.

Topping and Priming.— As the plant develops, a blossom bud grows
out from the top, which is called ‘‘ buttoning.” ‘This top being pulled
off, with those upper leaves that are too small to be of value, the plants
are thus reduced to a height of two or three feet. The first topping will
always admit of a greater number of leaves being left, and, in proportion
as the season advances, the number should be reduced. The heavier
kinds of tobacco are usually topped early in the season to twelve leaves,
then to ten, and still later to eight. Light tobacco, for segar wrappers,
may be allowed to mature sixteen or eighteen leaves. Priming consists
in breaking off the leaves next the ground, which, to the number of four

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 124

or five, have no value. A good rule is to prime six inches, and top to
eight leaves; but if the land is poorer than common, or if, from the
backwardness of the plant, and the advanced state of the season, frost
is apprehended, the priming should not be carried higher than four
inches. If the soil is unusually rich, and there is danger that the top
will come to the ground, then the priming must rise in proportion.

Suckering and Worming.— Every plant requires to be twice suckered
before it is ready for cutting. These shoot out from every leaf, and must
be broken off in such a way as not to injure the leaf. They are of quick
growth, and require early removal, else they will not only injure the
growth of the plant, but will endanger the destruction of leaves in
removing them. ‘Tobacco is very subject to injury by the horn- and cut-
worms, which should be frequently sought for and destroyed.

Cutting and Housing. — The cutting season commonly commences in
August, and continues into September. When tobacco is ripe, the leaves
assume a spotted, yellowish appearance, and are so thick and rigid that
they may be cracked or broken by folding and pressing them gently
between the thumb and forefinger. Tobacco must be split while stand-
ing; and such hands as can readily distinguish between the ripe and
green plants should be employed at this labor. Armed with a broad flat
cutter, somewhat like a square meat-chopper, a skilful operator splits the
plants, with great rapidity, to within six inches of the ground. The
cutter follows after, and, with a common hemp-hook cuts the plant up,
and lays it on the ground, where it is exposed to the rays of the sun for
a few hours, until the leaves fall and wilt. As there is danger of the
plants being burned by the too-powerful heat of the sun at mid-day, the
cutting should be done in the mornings and evenings; only such quan-
tity being cut at once as may be easily secured before the sun has
acquired sufficient power to injure it. When the plants have wilted
sufficiently, they should be piled with their butts toward the sun, as the
stems, being large and rigid, require more sun to make them fall. Much
care must be used in handling the plants, to avoid bruising the leaves ;
and the plants first cut should always be placed at the bottom of the
heap, so that, as near as possible, all may be exposed to the sun’s rays
an equal length of time. If the tobacco-house is near to the field, sleds
are very convenient vehicles for transporting the tobacco; but if at a
distance, a wagon will be preferable, coupled so as to hold a very long
body, sufficiently high to hang the tobacco on sticks across it. The sticks
being filled with plants in the field, and then placed on the wagon in a
row, nothing but the butts of the plants are presented to the action of
the sun while being transported to the drying-house. No more tobacco

2.*

126 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

should be cut at one time than can be hung up in the drying-house, as
great loss is attendant upon leaving it in heaps. ‘The sticks on which
the tobacco is hung should be placed in tiers above each other, and a
distance of from eight to twelve inches left between them, according to
the size of the tobacco—thus admitting a free circulation of air. When
partially cured, the spaces may be diminished, tou make room for another
cutting. If the tobacco is to be cured without fire, the house cannot be
too open on the sides; but if fire is used, the sides of the building must
be perfectly tight, and no openings left for the escape of smoke, except
in the roof.

Curing.—This is a nice operation, and requires skill and attention, as
upon its proper execution depends the quality and value of the tobacco.
For the first forty-eight hours the fires should be moderate; the mercury
ranging from 100° to 115°. When the edges of the leaves begin to turn
yellow, and the tips to curl, the fires should be raised, but not allowed to
get too hot, fur then the aromatic oil passes off with the sap and smoke,
leaving an inferior red-colored tobacco. And again, if the fires are too
low, the tobacco sweats, and the oil escapes. ‘The latter danger, how-
ever, is not so imminent as the former; more tobacco being injured by
too much heat, than by a lack of it. The fires having been gradually
raised until the mercury indicates 160°, they must be kept at that point
until the tobacco is cured. In making kite-foot tobacco, the rule is to
cure the plant, stems and all, in forty-eight hours from the time the fires
are raised, which is when the leaves begin to assume a yellow color.
After thus commencing to change, the entire leaf very soon takes on the
same appearance, when it becomes an object to cure it before it turns to
a nutmeg-brown. If not very speedily cured, the whole, or a great part
of it, will change to the latter color before the operation is completed.

Stripping and Prising.—When the plants are sufficiently dried, which
may be judged of by the stems becoming hard, the leaves may be stripped
from the stalks. A damp spell during the winter or spring is the best
time for this operation, as the moisture in the air prevents the leaves from
crumbling. They must then be sorted into three classes: lst, comprising
the best quality and color; 2d, that which is inferior; 3d, the ground
leaves. ‘he leaves may then be neatly tied up in bundles called
‘“‘hands,” each containing either four leaves of the first class, or six of
the second and third classes.* The ‘‘ hands” must then be *‘ put down to
condition,” as it is usually termed; that is, packed in large bulks, with
the tails in the middle, and the heads on the outside, and subjected to
heavy pressure by weights. In this state it undergoes a sweat; but as
s00n as it commences tu heat it must be taken out, and hung up to dry,

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 127

and there left until a rain shall again bring it into case. It should then
be put down in very large bulk; the number of courses being six, eight,
or any higher number, and the whole enclosed by soft straw, the walls
of the house, and plank, so as to exclude the air entirely. In this condi-
tion it may be kept for any length of time, and will always be ready for
hauling to market in the “ hand”’ or “ prising.’’ When the cover of the
bulk is removed, with the view of taking out a part of the tobacco for
prising or sale, the entire top course, or courses, should be smoothly
separated from the rest, and the cover carefully replaced. This is neces-
sary to prevent the top of the bulk from becoming too dry. Prising
should be done in weather when the condition of the tobacco will not
change. Each bundle should be straight, and closely packed in hogs-
heads in the usual way. When prising in summer, some elder-bushes
may be spread over the bulk to keep the tobacco damp.

Nicotine.— When the dried leaves of the tobacco-plant are moistened
with water, tied together in small bundles, and placed in heaps, fermen-
tation soon commences, and is accompanied by the absorption of oxy-
gen; the leaves then become quite warm, and emit the smell usually
perceived in prepared tobacco and snuff. If the fermentation is carefully
promoted, and too high a heat avoided, this smell increases, and becomes
more delicate; and, on the completion of the fermentation, an oily,
azotized, volatile matter, called nzcofine, is found in the leaves, which,
though possessing all the properties of a base, was not present before
the fermentation. Nicotine is a very powerful and deadly poison.

RICE.

Varieties and Description. — There are four principal varieties of rice,
viz: the common rice ( Oryza sativa), the dry or mountain rice ( O. mutica),
early rice (O. precox), and the clammy rice (0. glutinosa); though the
inferior varieties are as numerous as the different soils, climates, and
other physical circumstances controlling its culture. The culm of the
common rice is from one to six feet in height, annual, erect, simple,
round, and jointed. The flowers are disposed in a large and beautiful
panicle, similating that of the oat; the leaves slender, awl-shaped, curved,
and embracing; the leaflets lance-shaped, and resembling a calyx; the
valves of corolla of equal length—the inner,even and awnless; the outer
twice as wide, four-grooved, rough, and awned; the style single and two-
parted. Rice can be profitably cultivated only in warm climates, although
it has been in a measure acclimated to districts of Germany, and small
parcels have been raised in the neighborhood of Annapolis, in Maryland.

hie

128 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

A crop has been obtained even as far north as England, on the banks of
the river Thames. These cases are mere exceptions, however, to the

natural habits of the plant, and furnish no ground for an opinion as to
the possibility of cultivating it with profit in high latitudes. It is raised
in immense quantities in India, where the lands can be flooded, and also
in Japan, Cambodia, Cochin China, and the southern provinces of China.
In South Carolina it has long been a staple, having been introduced there
during the sixteenth century.

Mode of cultivation in South Carolina. — The planting is commenced
about the 25th of March; the ground is trenched shallow but wide, and
the seed scattered in the rows, in the proportion of two bushels to the
acre. It is hoed about the close of April, or the beginning of May, when
the rice is in the fourth leaf, and the field then covered with water. If
the planting be late, and there is danger of grass, the field is flooded
before hoeing. The usual depth of water is about three or four inches,
just sufficient to allow the tops of the rice to appear above it. When the
water is of proper depth, a notch is made on the frame of the feed-trunk,
and if the rains raise the water above the notch, or it leaks out, it must
be let off or added to accordingly. This is done by putting a small stick,
about an inch in diameter, in the door of the trunk. If scum or froth
appear in eight or ten days, the water is changed, by taking off the trunk
door, allowing it to run off with the ebb tide, and refilling at the next
flood. The water is kept on about fifteen or seventeen days, according to
the state of the weather: if the sun is hot, fifteen days; if the weather is
cool, and the atmosphere cloudy, seventeen days, counting from the day
the field is flooded. The water is allowed to leak off for two days, when

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 124

the whole is run off, and the field allowed to dry. In four or five days
it is hoed a second time, the ground stirred up, whether clean or not, and
the fallen rice combed up with the fingers. About the beginning of July
it is hoed the third time, and picked clean. The field is then flooded as
it 1s hoed, the water being regulated to the same depth as before. If any
grass escapes, it is picked out in the water after it shoots up. Though
this is called the fourth hoeing, the hoe is never used, except in some
high places, or in cleaning the dams. If the rice is flaggy, and likely to
lodge, it is supported by flooding it deeply, and so kept until it is fit for
harvest. With well-drained land, in good order, each hand may readily
cultivate five acres of rice, and one or one and a half of provisions.

Chinese mode of cultivation. — The Chinese obtain two crops per year
from the same land, and cultivate it in this way from generation to gene-
ration, on the same soil, and without other manure than the mud depos-
ited by the water of the river used in flooding it. A few days are allowed
for the mud to get partially dry, after the water has been drained off,
when a small spot is enclosed by a bank of clay, slightly ploughed and
harrowed, and the grain, previously steeped in dung, diluted with animal
water, is sown very thickly on it. A thin sheet of water is then brought
over it, either by a led stream, or by the use of the chain-pump. A seed-
bed, or nursery, is thus prepared, and, in the meantime, the rest of the
tract is being put in order for planting. When the plants are six or
seven inches high, they are set out in furrows made by the plough, and
so planted as to stand a foot apart every way. Water is then brought
over them, and so kept till the crop begins to ripen, when it is with-
drawn, and the field dried for the harvest. The rice is reaped with a
sickle, threshed with a flail, or trodden out by cattle, and the husk taken
off by pounding it in a stone mortar, or by passing it between two flat
stones, as in a common mill. The first crop is cut in May, and the
second, immediately prepared for by burning the stubble, ripens in
October or November. When this is cut, the stubble is ploughed in,
which is the only vegetable manure such lands receive. Aquatic rice is
cultivated in the same manner in Java, Ceylon, and Japan.

Cleaning Rice. — This operation is now usually effected by the aid of
the machine figured on the next page, which divests it of the husk, and
polishes the grain at the same time.

Uses.—Rice has been extolled, and very justly, as superior to any other
article of vegetable diet ; yet in Europe, and in many parts of the United
States, the preference is generally assigned to the potatoe, which contains
far less nutriment. In Hindostan, the natives, fed on rice and curry,
perform tasks in the burning sun which any white laborer, whose diet

130 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

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included roast beef, potatoes, and porter, never could accomplish. Rice
may be used in the whole grain, or in flour, in an indescribable number
of ways.

THE TEA PLANT

As it is more than probable that, ere long, this important shrub will
be successfully cultivated in many portions of the United States, a de-
scription of the mode of cultivation and process of manufacture may,
with great propriety, be introduced among the general details of Ameri-
can farming. Tea was grown in Georgia as far back as 1772, but, for
some unexplained reason, its culture was abandoned. In 1848 the late
Dr. Junius Smith, of Greenville, South Carolina, imported a large num-
ber of the plants, which, after cultivation in his garden until March of
1851, he set out on his plantation, where they grew remarkably well.
In January of the latter year, they suffered no injury from a snow eight
or nine inches deep, which was accompanied by intensely cold weather.
Efforts are now being made to introduce the tea plant generally through:

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. - 131
out those States whose climate is suited to its cultivation; and, with
proper management, the ultimate success of these endeavors is beyond
the possibility of a doubt.

Varieties and Description. — There are but two known varieties of the
tea plant— Thea viridis, or green tea; and Thea bohea (Fig. 68), or black

Fig. 68.

tea. The first-named is a large, strong-growing, almost hardy plant,
with spreading branches, leaves three to five inches long, very broadly
lanceolate, pale green, singularly waved, and the margin reflected. The
flowers, which are large, solitary, and mostly confined to the upper axil,
appear in autumn, six weeks or two months earlier than those of 7. bohea.
The latter plant is of smaller size, with remarkably erect, stiff branches;
the leaves are not above one-half or two-thirds the size of those of the
T. viridis, perfectly flat, more coriaceous, and dark green. On the axils
of numerous leaves two or three flowers are borne, which are small, have
a slight fragrance, and are in perfection during winter.

Soil and Climate.— The tea-plant delights to grow in valleys, at the
foot of hills, and upon the banks of streams, where it has the benefit of
a southern exposure. The soil best adapted to it is a rich, porous loam,
containing a considerable admixture of vegetable mould; and the land
must be thoroughly drained —the shrub refusing to grow in low, wet
lands. Those districts in the United States which are best suited to the
growth of the plant, are the alluvial tracts bordering on the tidal streams
of Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida,
and the undulating portions of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Kentucky,
and Tennessee.

Culture. — The seeds are gathered in October, packed in sand for pre-

1322 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

servation during the winter, and in spring sown in rows, distant about
four feet from each other. From three to five seeds are dropped in each
place, at intervals of three feet along the rows. With the exception of
stirring the earth, and eradicating the weeds, the plants remain undis-
turbed during the first two or three years, until they are well established,
and putting forth strong and vigorous shoots. On properly-managed tea
plantations, a regular succession is always kept up, so that the failure
of old plants is compensated by the constant maturing of an equal num-
ber. Plucking the leaves being very prejudicial to the health of the
shrub, the operation is never commenced until it is in a vigorous condi-
tion. When the plants are in their third year, the first crop is usually
gathered ; and they continue to yield until they are ten or twelve years
old. The best time for gathering tea is while the leaves are small, young,
and juicy; and the first gathering usually commences about the close of
February, when the leaves are young and unexpanded; the second about
the beginning of April; and the third during the month of June. The
first collection, which only comprises the tender leaves, is the most
esteemed, and is known by the name of imperial tea; but, as the season
advances, the quality and value diminish, until the lowest grade is
reached, called bohea. While under cultivation, the tea-plant rarely
attains a greater height than three or four feet.

Manipulation of the Leaves. —1. Green Tea (Thea Viridis). Leaves
intended for green tea are thinly spread out on trays, where they remain
for one or two hours, in order that the superflaous moisture may be eva-
porated, when they are thrown into the roasting-pans, placed over brisk
wood fires. In these pans they are rapidly moved about and shaken up
by the workmen until they become quite flaccid and moist, and give off
considerable vapor. After remaining in the pans four or five minutes,
they are transferred to the rolling-table, and divided among several
workmen, each of whom takes up as many as he can press together with
his hands, works them up into the form of a ball, and rolls them upon
the table until they are greatly compressed. Much of the moisture is
removed by this process, and the leaves obtain the desired twist. They
are then shaken out upon flat trays, and, after remaining thus for a short
time, are again thrown into a pan, placed over a slow but steady char-
coal fire, where they are kept in rapid motion by the hands of the ope-
rators. In about an hour the leaves are well dried, and exhibit a dull
green color, which subsequently becomes brighter. When a sufficient
quantity of leaves have been thus treated, they are winnowed through
sieves of different sizes, by which several varieties of tea are made,
according to size, and the whole cleansed from dust and other impurities.

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 133

During this operation the coarse teas are once reheated, and the finer
qualities three or four times, by which the leaves acquire a dull bluish-
green color.— 2. Black Tea (Thea Bohea). The leaves which are to be
manufactured into black tea are first heated and manipulated as above
described ; after which they are transferred to a tubular-shaped basket,
somewhat resembling a dice-box, and containing a sieve. This apparatus
is placed over a charcoal fire, where it remains but a few minutes, when
the leaves are taken out, and again rolled; this operation being repeated
a second, and sometimes a third time. When all the leaves have been
thus treated, they are replaced in the baskets in bulk, and set over a
slow fire, and, being covered over with a flat basket, are allowed to
remain thus until quite dry; being carefully watched, however, and
oceasionally stirred, so as to expose them equally to the heat. A black
color is thus produced, which subsequently improves. The other pro-
cesses of sorting, sifting, and reheating, being similar to those used with
the green teas, need not here be again detailed.

BROOM CORN.

Varieties. — According to Allen, a distinguished writer on agricultural
subjects, there are four or five species of the broom grass. ‘There are
several varieties, of which the pine-tree kind is regarded the poorest, or the
least advantageous for cultivation ; yet, as it is the earliest, — being three
weeks earlier than the large kind, ——in a short season, when its seed will
ripen, while the seeds of the other kind fail to ripen, this may prove the
most profitable crop. The North river crop is ordinarily the best crop,
being ten days earlier than the large kind, and yields about seven hundred
pounds of brush to the acre — the brush meaning the dried panicles, cleaned
of the seed, with eight or twelve inches of the stalk. ‘The New Jersey, or
large kind, yields about one thousand pounds of brush per acre. The stalks
and seed are large. In good seasons this is the most profitable crop.
Alluvial lands are best adapted for the broom corn, more especially if
warmly situated, protected by hills, and well manured.

Method of Planting. — The broom corn is planted in rows, about two and a
half or three feet apart, so that a horse may pass between them with a plough,
or cultivator, or harrow. The hills in each row are from eighteen inches te
two feet apart, or further, according to the quality of the soil. The quantity
of seed to be planted is estimated very differently by different farmers. Some

* say that half a peck is enough for an acre, while some others plant half a

bushel, and some a bushel, in order to make it sure that the land shall be

‘vell stocked. The rule with some is to cast a teaspoonful, or thirty or

“orty seeds, ina hill. The manure at the time of planting should be put
12

134 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

into the hill, and old manure or compost is preferred, as being most free
from worms.

Culture. —The broom corn should be ploughed and hoed three times, —
the last time when about three feet high, though some hoe it when it is six
feet high, and when they are concealed by it as they are toiling in the field.
The number of stalks in a hill should be from seven to ten; if there are only
five or six stalks, they will be larger and coarser, and if there are abour
eight, the brush will be finer and more valuable. In the first hoeing, the
superfluous stalks should be pulled up

Harvesting. — As the frost kills the seed, the broom corn is harvested at
the commencement of the first frost. The long stalks are bent down at two
or two and a half feet from the ground, and by laying those of two rows
across each other obliquely, a kind of table is made by every two rows, with
a passage between each table for the convenience of harvesting. After
drying for a few days, the brush is cut, leaving of the stalks from six to
twelve inches. The longer it is cut, of course, the more it ‘will weigh; and,
if the purchaser does not object, the benefit will accrue to the farmer. How-
ever, the dry stalk weighs but little; if its weight is excessive, the pur-
chaser sometimes requires a deduction from the weight. As it is cut, it
is spread on the tables, still further to dry. As it is carried into the barn,
some bind it in sheaves, which is a great convenience for the further opera-
tion of extracting the seed. Others throw the brush into the cart or wagon,
unbound.

Fig. 69.
a

7) ¢c

Scraping. — The process of extracting the seed is called ‘‘ scraping the
brush.’’? ‘Two iron horizontal scrapers are prepared, —one movable, to be |
elevated a little, so that a handful of brush may be introduced between
them. The upper scraper is then pressed down with one hand, and the
brush drawn through with the other, the seed being scraped off. This is

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 135

the old method. A newly-invented scraper is superseding the old one. It
is an upright instrument, of elastic wood or steel, inserted in a bench of con-
venient height for the operator. The form (Fig. 69) is as follows: a isa
piece of wood or steel, immovable ; 6 andc are pieces which are elastic,
movable to the right and left at the top, but fastened to the central piece
below. The degree of elasticity may be regulated by wedges in the planks
d and f — wedges in the hole through which the pieces pass. A quantity
of brush is taken in the hand, and brought down upon the top of this instru
ment. As it is forced down and drawn towards the body, it separates the
elastic sticks from the central piece, but their elasticity presses sufficiently
on the brush, so tliat the seed is scraped off. ‘The advantage of this scraper
is, that both hands may be applied to the brush, instead of only one hand,
as in the other kind, and the elastic power of nature is substituted for the
pressure of one of the hands. The instrument @lso seems to double the
scraping surface.

Uses. — For the manufacture of brooms it is unsurpassed. The seed is
also used for feeding horses, cattle, and swine. It is ground and mixed
with Indian meal, and is excellent food. It weighs forty pounds a bushel.

MILLET. i

Varieties. — There are two kinds of Millet cultivated : the German Millet
(a) and the Cultivated Millet (4). The cultivation required by both 1s
about the same.

Fig. 70.

Soil.— Millet requires a warm, rich, sandy, well-pulverized soil. It
succeeds better when sown after some crop which has been abundantly

136 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

manured than it does when sown immediately after an amelioration of
undecomposed manure. The soil must be tilled to a considerable depth
for its reception, and ploughed three times, besides harrowing, rolling, and
weeding. It is generally very successful on newly-drained land, provided
it is in good condition, and also land which has been left in repose for
several years ; in the latter case, a single ploughing is sufficient, if the soil
is afterwards harrowed, and well broken-up with a roller, before the seed is
put into it.

Sowing. — Millet should be sown in May; a harrow is then passed
lightly over the soil, and, where the ground is dry, a roller must also be
used. The seed must be wholly ripe, perfect, and free from disease.

Culture. — As soon as weeds make their appearance among millet which
is just shooting above ground, they must be eradicated ; thorough weeding
is an indispensable operation in the culture of millet.

Great attention is also requisite to seize on the exact time when the plant
attains maturity, especially with common millet, which ripens very
unequally, and is very liable to shed its seed. ‘Those who only cultivate
millet in patches cut off the spikes as they ripen, and carry them home in
sacks ; but as this can only be done where this plant is cultivated but little,
the reaping must be commenced as soon as the greater part of the plants are
ripe, and performed in a careful manner with a sickle. The plant must not
be left on the ground in swaths, because, if rain comes on, and it gets wetted,
it sheds its grain. It should, on the contrary, be immediately carried
to the barns, and there threshed, and freed from all impurities and foreign
substances. The grain should then be spread, in very thin layers, over the
floor, and stirred about every day with a rake, until perfectly dry ; other-
wise, it will become heated and bitter. The straw is tied up, even though
moist, and carried into the air to be dried; if not properly dried, it will
become mouldy on being stacked. This straw is much esteemed as proven-
der for cattle.

Although, when cultivated to any great extent, it is not possible to cut off
he ears separately as they ripen, it is well to gather all those in this man
ner which are to be used for seed. Grain which ripens thoroughly, and of
which proper care has been taken, shoots up evenly, and produces perfect
plants, free from disease, and especially from smut, which frequently mani
fests itself in this grain where proper precautions have not been taken.
That portion of millet which is intended for seed should also be preserved
a ary and airy place, and should be threshed when wanted.

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS, 137

HEMP.

Soils. — The soils which produce this article best are those which are
fresh, or which have lain some time in grass or clover. Manuring is not
much practised, clover being used in place of it. Deep, black, putrid vege-
table lands, which have a low situation, and somewhat inclined to moisture,
as well as the deep, mellow, loamy or sandy sorts, are well adapted. Mel-
low, rich, clayey loams do well, and so does old meadow-land.

The preparation of the ground, for sowing the seed, is by the plough and
horses, until the clods are sufficiently pulverized or dissolved, and the sur-
face of the field is rendered even and smooth. Scarcely any other crop better
rewards diligence and careful husbandry. Fall and winter ploughing
is practised with advantage — it is indispensable in old meadows, or old
pasture-grounds.

Culture. — Plants for seed are ordinarily reared in a place distinct from
that in which they are cultivated for the lint. The seeds intended to re-
produce seeds for the crop of the next year are sowed in drills about four
feet apart. When they are grown sufficiently to distinguish between the
male and female stalks, the former are pulled and thrown away, and the
latter are thinned, leaving the stalks separated seven or eight inches from
each other. The male plant alone blossoms, and, when agitated, throws
off farina, a yellow dust or flour which colors the ground, or any object
with which it comes in contact. A few of the male plants had better be

left, scattered through the drill, until the farina is wholly discharged, for as
12 *

138 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

obvious reason. Between the drills a plough is run sufficiently often to
keep the ground free from weeds and grass, and between the stalks in each
drill the hoe is employed for the same object. The seed plants are gen-
erally cut after the first smart frost, between the middle or last of Sep-
tember and the middle of October, and carried to a barn or stackyard, where
the seeds are easily detached by the common thrail. After the seeds are
threshed out, spread them on a floor, to cure properly and prevent their rot-
ting, before they are finally put away for use the next spring. ‘The seeds
— whether to reproduce seeds only, or the lint — are sowed about the same
time, which time depends on the season, though it is generally agreed that
all the month of May, and about the 10th of it especially, is the most favor-
able time.

When the object is to make a crop of hemp, the seeds are sown broadcast.
The usual quantity is a bushel and a half to the acre, though some use
more. When the seeds are sown, they are ploughed or harrowed in;
ploughing is best in old ground, as it avoids the injuricus effect of a
beating rain, and the consequent baking of the earth. It is also beneficial
afterwards to roll the ground with a heavy roller.

Gathering. —After the seeds are sown, the labors of the cultivator are
suspended until the plants are ripe, and in a state to be gathered — every-
thing, in the intermediate time, being left to nature. If the season be favor-
able until the plants are sufficiently high to shade the ground, (which they
will do in a few weeks, at six or eight inches height,) there is a strong
probability of a good crop. When they attain that height, but few articles
sustain the effect of bad seasons better than hemp.

It is generally ripe and ready to be gathered ahout the middle of August,
varying according to the time of sowing. Some sow at different periods, in
order that the crop may not all ripen at the same time, and that a press
of labor, in reaping it, may be thus avoided. ‘The maturity of the plant is
determined by the evaporation of the farina, already noticed, and the leaves
of the plant exhibiting a yellowish hue; it is then generally supposed to be
ripe, but it is safest to wait a few days longer.

Two modes of gathering the plants are practised, — pulling and cutting ;
the latter is now generally preferred. When pulled, it is done with the
hand, which is better for the protection of an old leather glove. The
laborer catches twenty or thirty plants together, with both hands, and, by a
sudden jerk, draws them without much difficulty. ‘The operation of cutting
is performed with a knife, often made out of an old scythe, resembling a
sickle, —not so long, but broader. This knife is applied much in the
same way as the sickle, except that the laborer stoops more. But, whether
pulled or cut, the plants are carefully laid on the ground, the evener the

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 113%)

better, to cure, which they do in two or three days, in dry weather. When
cured the plants are set up inthe field in which they were produced, in
shocks of convenient size, the roots or butt-ends resting on the ground, and
the tops united above by a band made of the plant itself. Previously to
putting them up in shocks, most cultivators tie the plants in small hand
bundles. Before the shocks are formed, the leaves should be rapidly
knocked off, with a rough paddle or hooked stick. The shocks are collected
together and formed into stacks, which are sometimes permitted to remain
over a year.

Rotting. —Two methods of rotting are practised — the dew-rotting and the
water-rotting. When dew-rotted, the plants are usually spread down from
the middle of October to the middle of December. A farmer who has a
Jarge crop on hand puts them down at different times, for his convenience in
handling and dressing them. Autumnal rotting is more apt to give the lint
a dark and unsightly color than winter rotting. The best ground upon
which to expose the plants is meadow or grass land. The length of time
they ought to remain exposed depends upon the degree of moisture and the
temperature of the weather that prevail. Ina very wet and warm spell,
five or six weeks may be long enough. To determine whether they have
been sufficiently rotted, a handful is taken and broken by the hand or applied
to the brake, when it can be easily ascertained, by the facility with which
the lint can be detached from the stalk, if it be properly rotted. If the fibres
remain on the ground too long, they lose some of their strength, though
a few days longer than necessary, in cold weather, will do no injury. If
they are taken up too soon, that is, before the lint can be easily separated
from the woody part of the stalk, it is harsh, and the process of breaking is
difficult. Snow-rotting, that is, when the plants, being spread out, remain
long enough to rot, (which, however, requires a greater length of time,)
bleaches the lint, improves the quality, and makes it nearly as valuable as
when water-rotted.

Breaking and Dressing. — After the operation of rotting is performed,
the plants are again collected together, put in shocks or stacks, or under
some covering. Breaking and dressing are best performed in February and
March ; and the best sort of weather, frosty nights, and clear, thawing
days. The brake cannot be used advantageously in wet or moist weather.

The usual daily task of an able-bodied hand at the brake is eighty pounds
weight, though this depends on the weather and the condition of the stalks.
The quantity of net hemp produced to the acre is from six hundred to one
thousand pounds, varying according to the soil and the season. It is said
that the quantity which any field will produce may be anticipated by the
average height of the plants throughout the field. Thus, if the plants wil]

140 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

average eight feet in height, the acre will yield eight hundred weight of
hemp, each foot in height corresponding to a hundred weight of the lint.

Hemp exhausts the soil slowly, if at all ; and nothing cleanses and prepares —

the earth better for other crops than hemp, especially for small grain or
grasses. It eradicates all weeds, and, when it is taken off, leaves the field
not only clean, but smooth and even.

FLAX.

Varieties. —'The most important species of this plant — the only one form-
ing the subject of cultivation — is the common flax, which has been applied
to the making of cloth from time immemorial.

Soils. — The soils best suited to the growth of flax are those which con-
tain a large proportion of vegetable matter in their composition. Strong
clays do not answer well, nor soils of a gravelly or dry, sandy nature. If
the soil be too much enriched by the application of manures, the flax will
grow too luxuriously, and produce a coarse fibre; and if it be deficient in
fertility, the produce will be scanty and unremunerative. Soils of the alluvial
formation are peculiarly adapted ; also land having a black, mossy surface, or
what is called gray land, and where the lower part of the soil is clay, resting
on a retentive subsoil. Crops of flax of considerable value have often been
reaped from land on which the produce of oats was inferior.

In the preparation of the soil for flax, it is of importance that it should be
reduced to a fine tilth, and be free from weeds. When the previous crop
has been grass, a single ploughing only is given, which is to take place early
in winter; when the period of sowing arrives, the land is to be well har-

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 141

rowed, to prepare it for seed. When flax succeeds a corn crop, the land is
also ploughed early. Two ploughings are generally required in the spring.

Culture. —In the culture of flax, the broadcast system is universally
adopted, and, after sowing, a double turn of the harrows is given to cover the
seeds. In most cases it is advantageous that the whole should be rolled,
and, in damp situations, water-furrowed. When it succeeds any of the
green crops, the grass-seeds and clover-seeds are sown at the same time as
the crop. In this case the preparation of the land is easy.

The period of sowing is in the month of April or May. The quantity of
seed sown will depend, in some measure, on the object in view in cultivating
the plant. When the quality of the fibre is regarded rather than the quantity,
thick sowing is advisable ; but if it be intended to save the seed of the crop
for the purpose of reproduction, if should be sown thin, in order that the
plants may have room to throw out their shoots, and to have free access of
air in the blossoming and filling seasons. Three bushels of seed may be re-
garded as the proper quantity; but if fine fibre must be produced, an
additional quarter of a bushel may be added ; when the seed is regarded, two
bushels or two and a half may be sufficient to the acre. The quality of flax-
seed is easily ascertained, and it is important that every farmer should be a
judge of the different kinds. That which is fresh and proper for sowing
should be smooth, slippery, bright, plump, and so heavy as to sink in
water; it should also taste sweet, and, on being broken, it should appear of
a light yellowish-green color, and oily.

The after culture of flax is chiefly confined to weeding.

Gathering. —The state of ripeness at which the crop is to be taken up
depends on the object in view in its cultivation. If to produce seeds, then
a degree of ripeness is essential greater than when the quality of the fibre
is the desideratum. In the latter case, it is well to pull the flax when it is
somewhat green ; in the former case, the state of ripeness is denoted by the
seed vessels becoming hardened, the stems assuming a yellow hue, and the
leaves beginning to fall. When the seeds are not intended for sowing again,
thuugh intended to be saved for consumption on the farm, the best period of
pulling is shortly after the plants have attained maturity with respect to the
formation, but not to the full ripening of the seeds. Flax should never be
pulled when it is in the least degree damp; and, when it is pulled, the
greatest care should be taken to sort it, keeping every kind by itself. When
pulled up, the plants are bound into sheaves or bunches, binding with the flax
itself.

Rippling. —In the process of rippling, which is the next operation, a
Jarge cloth should be spread upon the ground, with the ripple placed in the
centre of it The rippling machine (Fig.73) is an instrument like a comb,

142 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

with iron teeth, fixed upon a plank. The flax is separated into handfuls, and
then drawn once or twice through the teeth of the machine, and thus the cap-
sules or seed-vessels are separated. These capsules or pods should be spread
in the sun to dry; and those seeds which separate from the pods without
bruising are the best and ripest, and may be set apart for sowing. ‘The
capsules are then broken, either by treading or threshing, and the seeds
carefully winnowed and cleaned.

Watering. —'The next process is the separation of the fibres from the
stem by steeping the flax in water, by which the softer part partially under-
goes the putrefactive fermentation ; the best water being that which is clear,
soft, and in standing pools. The bunches of flax should be built in the
pool in nearly an upright position, the root-ends being uppermost. They
are kept under water by means of stones. When the flax is properly
watered, it will sink in the pool, and the fibres will separate freely from the
stalk. In warm weather, eight or ten days will sometimes be enough, and
only a few more, in any case; but, if the fibres adhere to the stem, so as to
be separated with difficulty, it must be continued in the water longer.
When sufficiently watered, it is taken out of the pool; and when drained, is
taken to a grass field, and spread thinly over it in rows, lying on the grass
not more than eight or ten days, and, when brittle, is taken up and again
bound into sheaves or bunches, and then left till thoroughly dry, when they
are sent to the mill, or carried home, or stored till wanted.

Uses. — Besides the fibre of the plant, its seed is of considerable import-
ance, being highly nutritive, and beneficial to every species of animal. It
is given in the form of a jelly, mixed with various other matters. (riven to
calves, it is an excellent substitute for milk; to horses and cattle it may be
given, mixed with bruised oats, bran, or cut hay, and straw; but when
intended for cattle, the chaff need not be separated from the seeds, but be all
boiled together.

LUCERN.

Description. —This plant has a perennial root, and grows, when cu tr
vated, from a foot and a half to two feet high, and more. It is covered with

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 143

leaves, downy below, and slightly so on the upper surface; bears a flower
of a fine purplish violet, and flowers in June or July.

di *
ANN

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\

Hl) , .
} g

Soil.— The soil adapted to its growth is deep, and of the lighter class,
with a free or kindly subsoil.

Culture and Tillage.—'Two methods of raising this plant have been
recommended and practised. The one is sowing it broadcast, in spring,
sometimes along with a corn crop, in the sume manner in which clover is
sowed, and sometimes without a crop; and the latter is the better practice,
lucern not being suited to grow freely under the shade of other plants. The
other method is, cultivating it in rows. lLucern, like other cultivated
forage plants, gradually gives place to the grasses and hardier plants.
When cultivated in rows, and carefully hoed, these native plants can be
kept down, and the lucern preserved for a long period in the ground. But,
when sown broadcast, this cannot be done in the same degree, and the
lucern does not generally endure beyond nine or ten years. This is the
main advantage which the row system possesses over the broadcast, in the
cultivation of this plant. The best period of sowing lucern is about the
middle of April. When sown broadcast, the quantity of seeds to the acre
may be sixteen or eighteen pounds; when sown in rows, ten pounds.

Che soil should be well prepared, by deep ploughing, and a previous
summer fallow, or fallow crop, such as potatoes, turnips, or carrots. But
when it is wished merely to possess a few acres of lucern for the convenience
of soiling, it is better to have the ground deeply trenched, and well manured.

When drilled, the rows need not be more than eighteen inches apart, which
will give room for tilling the intervals by the horse or hand hoe. After

144 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the seeds are sown, care must be taken to keep down, by means of the hoe,
all weeds that spring up amongst the plants and in the rows. In the month
of August of the first year, when in flower, the crop may be mown, and, after
this first cutting, the shoots may be kept down, by a slight pasturing with
sheep, but not while the soil is wet, nor continued till a late period. Early
in the following spring, the ground is to be horse or hand hoed, so that all
weeds may be kept down, and the earth stirred about the roots of the plants.
In the month of May the crop will be ready for the first cutting. After
being cut, it is to be horse-hoed in the intervals. It will now grow very
rapidly ; and, when ready for cutting, is to be cut again, and, after each
cutting, hand-hoed. In this manner it may be mown four or five times in
the season. It does not, however, arrive at its full growth till its third year,
after which it will yield rich and early foliage. But it requires to be manured
at intervals, as every fourth or fifth year; the manure may be farm-yard
dung, spread upon the surface after the last cutting in autumn, or early in
spring. When the system of broadcast is adopted, the difference in the
method of tillage is, that, in place of horse and hand hoe, the common har-
row is used, which, passing over the surface, stirs the soil about the roots of
the plants, and drags up and destroys weeds ; the lucern itself, having a strong
root striking downwards, is not torn up by this rough treatment, but is
henefited by the stirring of the soil around its roots and stems. f

Uses.— This plant is eminently wholesome and nutritive. It is well
suited for milch cows, causing them to yield good and abundant milk, and is
perfectly adapted to the feeding of horses, which is one of the most common
purposes to which it is applied. It may be used with the like advantage for
the soiling of any kind of stock, and is valuable for the early feeding which
it supplies, being in this respect considerably before the clovers.

SAINFOIN.

Description and Habits. —'This is a deep-rooted plant, with a branching
stem, bearing spikes of beautiful flowers. It grows wonderfully on rocky
soils, stretching its roots to a prodigious depth amongst the crevices of rncks
and open strata. It is, in truth, on dry rocky soils that the chief advantages
of the cultivation of sainfoin are seen. Like lucern, although in a lesser
degree, it is choked, and ultimately extirpated, by the prevalence of the
grasses; but in a soil perfectly suited to it, as in a chalky down, it will
have a duration, perhaps, as long as any other plant. Although best
adapted to the limy soils, it will also grow upon any light soil which has a
free or open subsoil ; but on moist clays it will only last a few years, —some-
times not above two.

”

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 145

Culture. — Sainfoin may be sown with a crop, in the same manner as the
clovers and grasses. In the following season, it may be mown for hay or
green forage, although it does not attain its full maturity until its third year.
When this mode of management is adopted, the sainfoin should be mixed
with one or more of the clovers, the most suitable being white clover, which
will add to the weight of the produce, without materially interfering with
the growth of the sainfoin. It should be sown broadcast, rather than culti-
vated in rows, and the seeds should be of a good and tried kind, perfectly
fresh.

It does not bear such frequent cutting as lucern. When used for soiling;
it may be cut twice; when used for hay, it should be cut once, and the
after-math depastured. It may be used for herbage as well as for forage,
and many farmers prefer depasturing it in the first year, so that in the
second it may have attained its full growth before it is mown. When made
into hay, it should be cut just when it comes into full flower. It is not very
apt to be injured by heating, and therefore may be put up more quickly than
other hay plants.

If ground is to be mown for successive years for forage, then, on such
soils as are suited to it, it is a good crop, being easily grown, hardy, and
productive. Such a mode of cultivation, however, cannot be commended,
When sown merely to produce one crop of hay, and then to be depastured for
such a period as may be thought suited to the nature of the soil, it answers
well; but in this case it is recommended that it be sown with a proportion
of white clover and rye grass.

13 » x

146 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

THE TARE.

Description. — This is an annual plant, hardy, and comprising several
varieties, one of which is distinguished by producing yellow seeds. The

varieties are chiefly two, the winter and spring tare, in choosing between
which, everything must depend on the intention of the crop. If the object
is to have early feed, the winter variety is to be preferred; but where the
land is foul, and requires to be two or three times ploughed in spring, or
where a late crop is desired, or a crop for seed, then the spring variety will
generally deserve the preference.

Soil.— The best adapted is a clay, but they will grow in any rich soil,
not over dry. In a moist climate, the haulm grows so luxuriant as to rot
at bottom; and in one over dry, it is deficient in length. A dry season is,
on the whole, preferable.

Preparing the Soil. — This seldom consists of more than one ploughing,
if for autumnal sowing; and of a winter and spring ploughing, when to be
sown in spring.

Time of Sowing. —The winter variety is sown in September and Octo-
ber, and the first sowing in spring ought to be as early as the season will
permit. The mode of sowing is mostly broadcast.

Culture. — The quantity of seed to an acre is from two and a half to three
and a half bushels, according to the time of sowing, and whether they are to
be consumed green or left to stand for a crop. When intended for seed, less
is sown than when grown for soiling or drying the haulm.

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 147

CLOVER.

Varieties. —There are three principal varieties, — Dutch clover, purple
clover, and cow-grass, the most approved kind being the common red or
broad clover, which is extensively cultivated in the United States, some-

Fig. 77.

times alone, and occasionally with other grasses. With timothy it makes
hay of a very excellent kind. especially for neat cattle. ‘

Culture —The seed is usually sown with winter wheat or other grain
crops, late in February or in March, whilst the ground is still subject to
freezing and thawing, and the seed can thus gain admission into the soil.
Or it may be sown with the oat, or other spring or summer crop, in which
case, having the advantage of being harrowed in, it can generally be sown
with even greater success than when put with a crop of winter grain. Too
little seed is generally applied, the quantity required being from ten to four-
teen pounds per acre.

Clover is frequently turned under in the fall, to enrich the ground prepar
atory to a crop of wheat, or in the ensuing spring for the benefit of Indian
corn. ‘The best time for turning down is in the rankest and most juicy
stage of its growth. Being a biennial plant, clover, of course, leaves the
field after the second year, unless allowed to seed itself. When timothy
has been sown with it, it obtains possession of the tield, where it is gener-
ally allowed to remain two or more years longer, affording the richest of
all kinds of hay for horses, although for neat cattle the mixture of red clover
and timothy is generally preferred.

Clover hay, when fed unmixed to horses, often produces a cough. This
can always be removed by substituting timothy for a few weeks, after which,

148 FARMER’S HAND-BOOR.

the feed may consist of half clover and half timothy, with little or no danger \

of producing cough. When the clover hay is fed from large troughs or
mangers, instead of racks above the head, horses escape the cough.

The first year’s growth of clover is sometimes mown for hay and some-
times pastured, and the second crops devoted to hay and furnishing seed.
When the second crop is pastured in spring, the stock must not be turned
on before the ground has become so firm that hoofs will not sink into the
sod, nor until the growth is such as to enable the cattle to thrive. The
pasturage may be continued from the middle of April or first of May, for
about six weeks, when the cattle are to be withdrawn, and the second crop
allowed to go to seed for saving.

The common practice of spreading clover hay from the swath causes the
leaves and blossoms to dry and crumble before the haulm or stems are suf-
ficiently cured. In this way, either the finer parts of the hay are lost, or
the crop is housed with so much moisture as to cause it to heat, and often
to spoil. It should only be spread when it has become wet with rain in the
swath, and should be gathered again before the leaves dry and crumble.
Both these evils may be avoided, and labor saved, by curing the grass
wholly in swath and cock. The clover should be left to wilt in the swath,
and when partially dried, either to turn the swaths or to make grass-cocks
the same day, so as to secure the dried portions from the dew. These
grass-cocks are allowed to stand one, two, or three days, according as the
weather is, and as the curing process has progressed, when they are
opened at nine or ten o’clock on a fair day, the hay again turned over
between eleven and three, and, soon after turning, gathered for the cart.
Some care is required in making the cocks. The grass is collected with
forks and placed on dry ground between the swaths, in as small a compass
as possible at the base, say two or three feet in diameter, and rising in a
cone to the height of four or five feet. The advantages of this mode of
curing clover are—1. The labor of spreading from the swath is saved.
2. The labor of the hand-rake is abridged, or may be wholly dispensed
with, if the horse-rake is used to glean the field when the hay is taken off.
3. It prevents, in a great measure, injury from dew and rain; for these
cocks, if rightly constructed, (not by rolling,) will withstand a rain of some
days, without heating, or becoming more than superficially wet. 4. Clover
hay made in this way may almost invariably be housed in good condition :
and, if rain falls after the grass is mown, the quality of the hay is much
superior in cocks to what it would be under the old process of curing.

Many prefer mowing the clover before it gets very ripe, as then so much
of the seed would not be shaken off during the operations of curing, remov-
ing, &c. As the hay of the seed-crop is seldom considered of much value,

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 149

except for litter and manure, it is frequently left long in the field to become
thoroughly dry, so as to insure it against heating in the mow or stack, as
this would be far more injurious to the seed than exposure to weather.
Besides mowing the seed-crop in the usual manner for hay, several other
methods have been devised. ‘The one most usually resorted to in Pennsyl-
vania is the employment of a scythe and cradle to cut off the heads, which
are caught by a kind of bag attached to the lower fingers, the rest being
removed. Or, the upper fingers being removed, the lower ones may be
placed sufficiently close to catch the heads. Many contrivances are in use
for gathering the heads in the field.

In getting the seed from the heads, it has been common to employ the
flail ; and, to clear it from the husk and chaff, recourse has been had to a
clover-mill, worked either by water, steam, or horse power.

The old method of threshing out clover-seed by the flail, or by the tramp-
ing of horses, has been generally regarded as very tedious and disagreeable ;
so much so, indeed, as to have discouraged most farmers from attempting to
gather the seed at all ; but the introduction of threshing-machines has obvi-
ated all difficulty of this kind.

THE GRASSES.

Varieties. — The species of grass which may be regarded as most valuable
in our meadows and pastures are: —1, Meadow or green grass; 2, Tim-
othy ; 3, Orchard grass; 4, Meadow fescue; 5, Blue grass; 6, Ray
grass; 7, Red-top; 8, Sweet-scented vernal grass. These, among the
almost infinite varieties, are considered about the most valuable

First, — Meadow or Green Grass, also called Spear or June Grass, highly
esteemed for hay and pasture. It is a native variety, and abounds through
13 *

150 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the country, but does not perfect itself north of the Ohio valley. It with-

stands the frost, and prefers a warm, dry, limy, or rich upland soil.
Second, — The Timothy, Cat’s Tail or Herd’sGrass. For the Northern

States this is unsurpassed, flourishing in all soils except such as are wet,

too light, dry, or sandy; is easy of cultivation, hardy, and very productive.
For milch cows and young stock, it should be cut while it is juicy. May
be sown upon wheat or rye, in the spring or early fall.

Third, — The Orchard Grass, or Cock’s Foot, a native variety, well suited

to good arable lands. Should be cut before wholly ripe, and be fed closely.

Will grow in all parts of the United States.
Fourth, — The Meadow Fescue; likes a rich, boggy soil, is quite produc-

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 151

tive and forward, the grass being of a kind much relished by cattle, either
green or hay.

Fifth,—The Blue Grass, or Flat-stalked Meadow; an early dwarfish

grass, growing in the Middle and Northern States. It is hardy, but is
more valuable for pasture than hay.

Sixth, —The Ray Grass, or Rye Grass ; extensively grown in some parts

of Europe, but does not do so well in this country, except in elevated and
humid districts.

Seventh,— The Red-top, Herd’s Grass, Fowl Meadow, or Fine Bent; a
native perennial variety, valuable for hay and pasture, on lands adapted to
its growth, which are reclaimed swamps and other moist grounds. This

152 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

grass and timothy are fit for the scythe about the same time, and, there-
fore, fit to be sown together.

Fig. 83.

Righth,— The Sweet-scented Vernal Grass. This is a foreign perennial
grass, of dwarfish habit, sown principally on grounds intended for pasture,

on account of the very early feed it affords, and for its growing quick after
being cropped. It is delightfully fragrant.

Fig. 85.

in addition to the preceding varieties, there is the Pony Grass (Fig. 85),
which is considered one of the best winter grasses for the Western States,

ies

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 153

grows in close, thick, elevated tufts, and continues green through the cold
season.

Annual Spear Grass is an early, sweet grass, much relished by cattle ;
but it will not stand drought.

Barn, or Barnyard, Grass flourishes on moist, rich, or well-manured
soils, is very succulent and nutritive, and well relished by stock. Flowers
in the latter part of summer, and beginning of autumn.

Black Grass grows luxuriantly along the margins of salt marshes liable
to periodical overflow by the tides. When cut early, and well cured, it
makes a very excellent hay, although not equalling in weight that of
many other varieties.

Crab Grass, a native of India, now grown in the Unmed States, is an
early grass, which requires a moist, rich soil.

Crested Dog’s Tuil Grass grows well in upland pastures, and affords a
wholesome food for sheep. It flowers somewhat late, and makes a beau-
tiful covering for lawns in the latter part of summer,

Crow-foot Grass, another native of India, naturalized in the United
States, succeeds well. It grows well in a moist, rich soil, and makes
excellent hay.

Downy Oat Grass is a hardy plant, and forms a good, permanent pas-
ture. It is common to chalky soils; but arrives at greater perfection on
more fertile lands, which it impoverishes but little.

Fiorin, or Bent Grass, an imported English variety, grows vigorously
in moist soils and swampy grounds. Sheep and cattle are very fond of
it. Itdoes not suit for alternate husbandry, as, when once it has obtained
a hold, it can scarcely be eradicated.

Floating Fescue Grass flowers in June, and delights in very wet
grounds. Ilorses and cows are very fond of it, and the superior excel-
lence of some kinds of cheese is said to be caused by the peculiar richness
and flavor which it imparts to the milk of cows fed upon it.

Foxtail Grass very much resembles timothy, for which it is sometimes
mistaken. It is extensively grown in the Middle States, and flourishes
on any fertile soil, which is not wet.

Gama Grass, a native of the Southern States, is one of the most prolific
grasses under cultivation, and will bear drought when all surrounding
vegetation is destroyed. If suffered to go to seed it becomes too coarse
for hay; but, in its green state, it is eaten by cattle with avidity.

Guinea Grass,’a native of Africa, naturalized in the United States
seventy years since, but now little cultivated, was formerly much esteemed
in the South, as a most prolific and nutritive grass. It is a perennial
plant, and may be cut four or‘five times during the summer.

154 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Italian Rye Grass flourishes best on fertile, well-watered soils; but,
notwithstanding its great trans-Atlantic repute, it does not equal timothy
in its nutritive qualities.

Meadow Spear Grass flowers late in June, and, being a hardy plant,
succeeds as well on low, wet grounds, as it does on light, upland soils.
It is eaten readily by cattle during the winter season, though it is not
much esteemed because of its coarseness.

Meadow Foxtail is a perennial grass, of early growth and hardy nature,
much relished by sheep and horses. It grows well on soils which are in
good condition, and is very productive, continuing to shoot forth flowering
stems until late in autumn.

Narrow-leaved Meadow Grass forms a fine, permanent pasture. It flowers
in June, and, before that time, its leaves, which are soft and succulent,
attain the length of twelve inches.

Reed Meadow Grass, which grows in wet soils, contains much nutri-
ment, and is greedily eaten by cattle. It is too aquatic in its habits to
allow of an-extended culture.

Ribbon Grass is well adapted to wet, boggy grounds, yields a large
product, either in hay or pasture, and is much relished by cattle. Being
essentially aquatic in its nature, it requires a soil well saturated with
water.

Rice Grass flourishes in swampy lands in the South, may be cut seve-
ral times during the summer, and furnishes a hay fully equal to the best
timothy.

Sult-marsh Grass grows in muddy spots, overflowed by sea-water. Cut
green, and made into hay, it furnishes good food for horses and cattle,
which eat it with a relish, on account of its saline flavor.

Sheep’s Fescue forms an excellent pasturage for sheep. It grows from
six to ten inches high, and flowers in June.

Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass makes an excellent hay, and affords the
richest of pastures. It delights in a moist soil, but thrives most luxu-
riantly in rich meadows. It is useful for making a straw plait, which
very closely resembles Leghorn.

Tall Fescue Grass, a native perennial, is very luxuriant and productive,
but not a favorite on aceount of its coarseness. It grows well in boggy
meadows, and flowers in July.

Tall Meadow Oat-Grass, which blossoms in May, is preferred by horned
cattle before all other grasses, and yields an abundance of good, sweet
hay. Mixed with clover, it makes a good upland meadow.

Lands alternately in Grass and Tillage.—In laying down lands to grass
the most important primary object is duly to prepare them for the recep»

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS 155

tion of the seeds. The soil ought to be brought into the highest possible
degree of fertility; for, although land may be too rich for the production
of some crops, it is quite otherwise in the case of grass. Besides being
rich, the land should also be well pulverized by tillage; otherwise, the
irregularity of the surface will not only occasion an irregularity in the
produce of the crop, but it will be liable to be damaged by excessive
droughts, before the plants can have extended their roots, or become
firmly settled in the land.

The time of sowing the seeds of the cultivated grasses depends on the
nature of the land, the state of the weather, and the kind of crop amongst
which they are sown. Among the numerous inventions for sowing seed
broadcast, the one here figured is very simple and convenient. When

Fig. 86.

sown with corn, the seed-time is invariably in the spring. The autumn
is preferable when they are sown exclusively by themselves. This prac-
tice has been recommended, in the case of laying down lands to perma-
nent grass, as being calculated to afford a thicker and better sward. The
value of the grass crop is, no doubt, in some degree, affected by the ex-
haustion of the soil occasioned by the production of the preceding crop
of corn, but not in a degree commensurate with the latter; besides, the
period in the rotation at which the smaller seeds should be sown is imme-
diately after the land is manured, and, in this case, the severity of the
corn crop is felt. After being sown, the seeds quickly germinate, and, in
favorable situations, they will have attained a considerable height before
the commencement of the corn harvest; and when the corn is cut down
close to the ground, they are cut and winnowed with the straw, and add
considerably to the value of the latter for fodder. After harvest, the
ground may be slightly pastured with calves and sheep; throughout the

156 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

winter the land is to remain untouched. In the succeeding spring, clear
the land of stones, and afterwards the surface is to be raked to break
down the stubble of the preceding crop, and further to prepare the land

Fig. 87.

for the action of the scythe towards the first of June. When, however,
the crop is set apart for pasturage, the earliest and richest herbage is to
be obtained in the second year.

Soiling.—When the practice of soiling, or cutting the crop and con-
suming it in a green state, is pursued, the part containing a large quan-
tity of the clovers should be’ chosen, while that in which the grasses pre-
dominate may be made into hay. The crop may be cut for soiling earlier
than for hay. Soiling is, in many cases, advantageous; in others, it is
not. Certain animals do not thrive unless enjoying the air and exercise
attendant on pasturage, and, in most cases, a portion of the farm is una-
voidably in pasture, as, for instance, grass land in the second and third
year. Soiling and depasturing may be somewhat combined by turning
animals out to the pastures during the cool parts of the day, and feeding
them in the house towards noon.

Haying.—The portion of the crop which is not cut for soiling is made
into hay. The period when the crop should be cut down, when intended
for hay, is just when the plants have attained their full size; and the
flowers, which just then are coming on, should not, in any degree, have
begun to fade before the cropis cutdown. The plants are laid in swaths
by the action of the scythe, and as soon as these are dried on the top,
they are completely turned over by a fork in such a manner as not to
break or spread, and these swaths may be put into cocks in the evening,
which are afterwards made into ricks, or conveyed to the stack. When
not dry enough to be carried from the small cocks to the stack, it must

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 157

be formed inte large cocks or ricks in the field, there to stay until fit tc
be stored in a larger stack. By the use of a hay-elevator (Fig. 88), a load

Fig. 88.

of hay may be transferred from a wagon to the mow or stack in a very few
minutes. In forming the stacks, a layer of straw is usually spread over
the bottom, or stand, and the hay is then regularly spread and trodden
down, observing to keep the middle of the stack weli raised. In this
manner, it is carried up to the height of several feet, projecting slightly
to the eaves, so as to overhang the sides, to guard the lower part from
rain. The roof is then raised to a considerable height in a slanting form,
with gable ends; and, being thus formed, the loose ‘hay which projects
from the sides and ends of the stack is pulled, until all is smooth and
regular, and the stack is then bound down with ropes. Salt, in small
quantity, is sometimes strewed upon the hay, as the building of the stack
proceeds, to stop fermentation, and render the hay palatable. Imme-
diately after the hay is removed from the field, cattle may be turned in
for several days. ‘Ihe length of time which the land is afterwards con-
tinued in grass depends on the course of cropping practised on the farm.
According to the alternate husbandry, it cannot be longer than one or
14

158

FARMER’S HAND-BOOK

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 159

two seasons, for, under any circumstances, it is not good management to
keep land more than three years in grass. The revolving horse hay-rake

Fig. 90.

Seen
iE

(Fig. 90,) was formerly in extensive use, but it has been in a great
measure superseded by more labor-saving machines, of which Delano’s
movable tooth-rake (Fig. 89;) is one of the best.

Hay-Caps.— So much hay has been injured in the fields by rain, after
it has been fully cured, that it has been found economical to make covers,
and spread them over the hay-cocks, as a protection from the weather,
These, styled ‘‘ hay-caps,”’ are made of stout, unbleached sheeting, forty-
five inches square, well coated with a mixture composed of one gallon
of linseed oil, four pounds of beeswax, and one quart of japan. A stone
sewed into each corner, to prevent it from being blown off by the wind,
is then the only thing required to complete the article for use. Larger-
sized covers, made in the same manner, are used for the protection of
hay while on the wagon, or in permanent stacks.

Pressing Hay.—A variety of machines have been used for the purpose
of packing hay in bales for market, all of which have some merit.
That illustrated in Fig. 91 (Dederick’s), one of the latest inventions, is
believed to be more perfect than any heretofore employed. There being
no unnecessary friction to overcome, the power is proportionally in-
creased. This machine is also used for packing cotton, hops, hemp,
cloth, ete. Instead of being obliged to build a press, farmers may now
have them made to order with as much facility as any of the other labor-
saving machines.

160 FARMER’S HAND-BUOK.

Fig. 91.

Lands Permanently in Grass. —The management of lands of this de:
scription is somewhat different from that of grass land merely interposed
in the course of cropping of arable lands, to prevent the exhaustion of
the nutrient parts of the soil consequent upon incessant tillage. From ¥
the short period in which the land is, in the latter case, in grass, manure : |
is seldom applied to the surface, though often indispensable in the former. : |
Various other operations are also performed to remedy those defects which q

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 161

are natural consequences resulting from lands being long kept in grass.
Such lands naturally divide themselves into two classes —those fit either
for mowing or pasture, and those fit for pasture only.

Perennial Grass Lands fit for Mowing, or Meadow Lands.—Under the
term meadow are included all such lands as are kept in grass chiefly for
the sake of the hay-crop, though oceasionally, and at particular seasons
of the year, it may be depastured. ‘The value of the natural meadow
depends much on the situation, as well as on the quality, of the land.
There are three descriptions of these meadows; those on the banks of
streams and rivers, those on the uplands or more elevated grounds, and
bog meadows.

The meadows situated along the banks of rivers and streams are, in
general, by far the most valuable, and should never be converted into
tillage. ‘The principal defects to which such lands are liable, are the
ouzing out of the springs towards their junction with the higher grounds,
and the overflowing of the stream or river: the former evil is to be
remedied by draining, and the latter by supplying embankments, well
fortified with osiers.

Upland meadows require more attention than valleys and holms, being
more difficult to drain, and requiring frequent manuring. The roots of
grasses never strike deep into the soil; and thus, deriving their nourish-
ment chiefly from the surface, the utility of top-dressing is obvious. The
irregular surface of uplands is frequently much injured by superfiuous
moisture, and the surface is generally covered by inferior herbage and
by mosses, the remedy for which consists in a very thorough course of
tillage.

Boggy land is generally least valuable. When thoroughly drained,
the culture of herbage plants is about the most profitable way of occupy-
ing it. When under tillage, its cultivation is very difficult; but when so
far improved as to warrant its being laid down in grass, large crops may
be obtained at comparatively small expense.

More than one crop is rarely obtained from the natural meadows. The
time of cutting the crop is later than that of the cultivated meadow, the
proper time being just before the formation of the seed. After being
cut, the grass is allowed to remain for a short time in the swath, and is
then scattered evenly over the surface of the ground. If the weather be
fine, the grass is soon formed, with the rake, into what are called wind-
rows, which, after standing a few hours, may be formed into cocks of
small size, by simply grasping a quantity of the grass, which had been
previously shaken in a heap, and placing it on a part of the surface that

a* .

162 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

has been raked. The next day these cocks are again spread abroad,
then formed into wind-rows, and again put into cocks, of a larger size,
in the evening. In a day or two these will be ready for putting into
ricks, if the weather be fine; if it be not, a much longer time may be
required, and the cocks will have to be again shaken out and re-formed
into larger, before the hay is ready for the rick.

In certain situations, the raising of hay on the natural meadow will
be found the most simple and economical way of occupying such lands
as are suited to it. Frequent manurings are, however, essential to their
productiveness ; the best manure being composts of lime, to be applied
in the spring.

Permanent Pastures. —The drainage of lands permanently im grass
greatly improves them. Cuts are made along the hollows of the field,
which convey the water to the most convenient outlet, and small drains,
formed either by a plough or spade, open into them. These need not be
more than a foot deep, though numerous, especially in hollow places.
Having drained off the surface water, the tendency to 7o¢ will be obviated.
Weeds, shrubs, and mosses should be thoroughly removed, which can
be done by the hand, by the use of the plough, by draining, and by a
course of tillage.

Lime, applied to the surface of grass lands, either alone or combined
with other matters, is beneficial, after superfluous moisture has been
removed. When, from frequent rolling and the treading of animals, the
surface of grass lands gets into a tenacious state, scarifying will go far
to remedy the evil. This operation is quite useful before any top-dressing
is applied.

The time of stocking pastures in spring must depend on the season;
and the state of growth which it is desirable the plants should attain
before being stocked must, in some degree, be determined by the condi-
tion and description of the animals to be employed in consuming the
herbage, — whether they are only in a young state, or approaching to
fatness, — whether milch cows or sheep, or a mixture of animals of dif-
ferent species. The great objects to be aimed at are, that the stock, of
whatever kind it may be, shall be carried forward faster or slower,
according to the object in view, and that none of the herbage shall be
wasted.

a oe

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 163

MOTIVE POWERS, ETC., FOR FARM PURPOSES.

The Wind-Mill is one of the most economical motive powers which can
be used upon a farm, as, if the machine is well made, on a good prin-
ciple, it requires no repairs for some years, and then only those of the
most simple and inexpensive character. The most perfect, yet simple,

Fig. 92.

wind-mill now in use in the United States, is that of Mr. C. R. Webb,
Philadelphia (Fig. 92), which, with a moderate breeze, will grind eight

Wor

164 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

bushels of grain per hour, and, at the same time, raise water to the
height of from fifty to one hundred feet. Being self-regulating, it can be
started or stopped by even a child, without going outside of the building
on which it is placed.

Horse Power. — Fig. 93 represents a vertical horse-power, which may,
however, be geared fora horizonta! movement, if preferred. It is adapted

Fig. 93.

to one or more horses, as may be required, and is a compact, durable,
very simple, and cheap power. It may be used for driving a threshing-
machine, for supplying power to a portable or stationary grist-mill, and
for all the various purposes to which the wind-mill is applicable.

Patent Grist-Mill.—Beside grinding all kinds of grain into flour, these
mills (Fig. 94) are calculated for supplying feed-stuff of any required

Ae ties ass, fen ee

THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 165

fineness. These machines are so simple that they can be regulated by
any person of ordinary capacity ; and, according to size, they will grind

Fig. 94.

MAT

=i — a

from seven to twenty-two bushels of corn per hour. Any kind of power
can be applied to them, whether wind-, water-, steam-, or horse-power.

CHAPTER III.

PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR USES IN THE ARTS,
AND FOR THEIR OILS.

INDIGO—MADDER—WELD— WOAD—TURMERIC—SUMACH — BASTARD SAFFRON
—TEASEL—COLZA—RAPE—SUN FLOWER—CASTOR OIL PLANT.

INDIGO.

Description.—This is an extensive genus of rather elegant plants, with
tap roots, most of the species of which produce the well-known dye called
indigo, the finest of all vegetable blues. The genus belongs to the natural
order Leguminose; the flowers resembling those of the pea tribe. The
upper petal is round, and notched at the point; the two lower petals fur-
nished with an awl-like spur on both sides; the stamens are united in
two parcels; the style is thread-like; and the fruit, shaped like a pea-
pod, is divided into two parts, containing one or more seeds.

Varieties. —The varieties cultivated are: the wild (Indigofera argentea),
the Guatemala (J. dispermea), the French (J. ¢tinctoria), and the I. caerulea,
which yields the finest indigo.

Soil.—When cultivated, indigo thrives best in a free, rich soil, and in
a warm situation, frequently refreshed with moisture. In the West Indies
it may be grown on comparatively poor, dry soils, but to most advantage

(166)

.
-—
a

PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 167

in those that are fertile. In the Southern States, however, the plant re-
quires a good, rich, deep soil. These States are peculiarly adapted to
the culture of the indigo plant, and, a half century since, the finest indigo
ever produced was grown in the Carolinas.

Culture. —The ground having been first properly mellowed with the
plough, and then harrowed, the seeds may be sown with a drill, in rows
distant from each other about twelve or fourteen inches. As the plants
shoot up they “must be frequently weeded, and carefully tended, until
they spread sufficiently to cover the ground. When cultivated in great
quantities, the seeds are merely strown rather thickly in little shallow
pits, hoed up at a distance of six or seven inches apart, and immediately
covered with earth. Plants thus raised thrive rather better than those
sown in drills, but they require more care in weeding. They arrive at
full perfection in two or three months, and answer the purpose best when
cut in full blossom. With a reaping-hook they are cut off a few inches
from the root, tied up in bundles, conveyed to the works, and laid in the
steeper by strata. Four bushels of seed will sow twenty acres, and that
quantity of land may be cultivated by sixteen hands. From rich land,
the yield in twelve months will average five hundred pounds of indigo
to the acre; for, if kept free from weeds, the pJant will yield three or four
crops each year, as it rattoons, or sends up new shoots after each cutting.
It must, however, be replanted every season.

Extraction of the Dye-—When the lower leaves begin to dry, and while
the morning dew is still on them, the plants. are cut, and immediately
immersed in vats, where they remain until macerated. The liquor is
then drawn off into another vat, in which it is beat until the fecula sepa-
rates, when the latter is let off into a third vat, and allowed to stand for
some time. It is then strained through cloth bags, and afterwards eva-
porated to dryness in shallow wooden boxes, placed in a shady situation.
Before becoming quite hard it is cut into square pieces, and packed in
cases for shipment. Indigo is not contained ready formed in the plant,
but is produced by the oxidation of some substance there present. Fer-
mentation is not essential to its extraction, as a mere infusion of the
plant in hot water deposits indigo by standing in the air. The only
solvent of pure indigo is sulphuric acid, with which it forms a deep blue
pasty mass, soluble in water, and largely used in dyeing. For the man-
ufacture of indigo on a small scale, ordinary barrels will supply the place
of vats; and holes bored in them at regular intervals from top to bottom
will serve to draw off the liquor as required.

Uses.—The coloring matter of indigo is largely used in manufactures,
principally for dyeing woollen and cotton fabrics, and for coloring mo-

168 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

rocco. Large quantities of an inferior article are annually imported,
which would not be the case if the plant were cultivated in the South to
the same extent as formerly. Manufacturers would abandon the use of
the imported article if they could obtain the home product in sufficient
quantity, as it is vastly superior to any which can be obtained from
abroad. Beside yielding indigo, the I. tinctoria is also medicinally em-
ployed, and the powdered leaf of the J. anil is used in some diseases of
the liver. .

MADDER.

Description.—Dyer’s madder (Rubia tinctorum,) has a perennial root,
and an annual stalk. The root is composed of long, succulent fibres, as
thick as a man’s little finger, which strike deep into the ground, some-
times extending to a distance of three feet. From the upper part of the
root many lateral fibres diverge, which extend to a great distance, just
beneath the surface of the ground, and then send up numerous shoots,
which, if carefully removed in the spring soon after they appear above
ground, and replanted elsewhere, will furnish new plants. The leaves
are four or six in a whorl, lanceolate, with the midrib on the under disk,
and the margins aculeated. The flowers, which are small, are supported
on axillary tripartite flower-stalks. The dried root is long, of a cylin-
drical character, about the bulk of a goose-quill, branched, and invested
with a reddish cuticle, which, as well -as the bark, is readily separable.
In‘a fresh state the color is yellow, but by drying it becomes reddish.
It has a feeble odor, and a bitter, astringent taste. The best coloring
matter is prepared from the heart of the root, and the older roots are pre-
ferable to the young ones. —

Soil.—The soils most suitable for the growth of madder are deep, fer-
tile, sandy loams, containing a considerable infusion of lime and vegetable
matter, and not retentive of moisture. It will grow in light soils, if they
are fertile, and of sufficient depth, provided they are well manured.

Culture.—Plough the land deep in September, and again in October,
and thus let it lie in ridges during the winter, to be acted on by the frost.
When the spring has opened, and the ground become dry and warm,
plough again deeply, and harrow well. Then strike the land off into
ridges with a one-horse plough, making them three feet wide, with water-
furrows four feet in width between. If the ground is moist, raise the
ridges ten or twelve inches above the natural surface; but, if it be dry,
six or eight inches elevation will be sufficient. Alight harrow maythen
be used to level and shape the ridges. The time for planting is usually __
during the month of May, or even earlier, if there is no danger of severe

PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 169

frosts. The land having been prepared as above indicated, stretch a line
lengthwise of the beds, and, with a hoe, make holes six inches from the
edge, along both margins of the beds, and also in the middle, leaving a
space of twelve inches between each hole. Into these insert the sets, and
cover them from two to four inches deep with fine earth, and press it
down with the foot. As soon as the young plants appear above ground,
they must be carefully hoed, with the view of destroying the weeds; and
this must be repeated as often as the weeds reappear. If any of the sets
have failed to grow, the vacancies may be supplied during June or July,
by taking up and transplanting parts of the strongest roots. When the
plants have attained the height of ten or twelve inches, the tops must be
covered, with the exception of their extreme ends, with fine earth shovelled
from the alleys. They should be bent outward as well.as inward, so as
to fill all the vacant spaces, and this operation should be repeated as often
as the plants become sufficiently long, which is usually three times during
the first season. The purpose of this is to assist the plants to form new
roots, with which it is desirable to fill the ground as fast as possible..
The second year the beds must be freed from weeds, and the tops of the
plants covered with earth as before, which may be repeated two or three
times during the season. Care must be used to keep the edges of the
beds as high as the centres; otherwise, the rains will run off, and the
crop suffer from drought. The ¢hird and fourth years but little attention
will be required, as the plants cover the entire ground, and the few weeds
which may appear can be readily picked out. The roots are ploughed
out during September of the third year in some States, and during the
same month of the fourth year in others: those grown in warm lati-
tudes arriving at maturity much sooner than those cultivated in colder
situations.

Ploughing out the Roots—The tops of the plants must first be removed
with a sharp-edged shovel, which takes off, at the same time, about half-
an-inch of the surface earth. Then attach a powerful span of horses to
a large plough, and turn a furrow outward, beam deep, around the edge
of each bed, and let the hands rake and pick out the roots from the fur-
row. Plough another furrow beam deep, as before, inside of the last,
and thus proceed until the beds have been entirely turned over.

Cleansing and Drying the Roots. — As soon as possible, take the roots
to some running stream in the vicinity, or to the pump, and put them,
half a bushel at a time, into a large, open-mouthed sieve, and wash them
perfectly clean. When washed, lay them on slanting platforms to dry.
These platforms should be about two feet high at one end, and slope down
to eight inches at the bottom, and be erected in rows, not far from the

170 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

farm buildings. After the second or third day’s drying, the roots must
be protected from dews at night, and from rain, by placing several of
the platforms one upon another, and covering the upper one with boards.
In the morning, or when danger from rain has passed, they may-be again
spread out. In five or six days they will be sufficiently dry to stow away,
preparatory to grinding. Some prefer drying in kilns, like those used
for malt or hops.

Grinding the Roots. — As soon as the roots are thoroughly dried, they
may be broken in a cast-iron bark-mill, and then cleansed by a fanning
machine, after which they may be ground fine in a grist-mill, and packed
in barrels like flour. If not packed immediately they gather dampness
from the atmosphere, which prevents them from grinding freely. The
addition of a little carbonate of lime while grinding improves the color
considerably.

Propagation and Preservation of Sets.—Sets may be produced by sow-
ing the seed in a fine, light earth, one year before the plants are wanted,
and then transplanting them. Sets of one inch in length may be planted
for one year in a garden, and then removed to the field-bed. The selec-
tion of sets from the growing crop should be made when it is dug in the
fall. Those which grow horizontally, and have numerous eyes, are
regarded as the best, and should be separated from the lower roots, and
buried in the cellar during the winter. Previous to planting, they should
be cut into pieces containing from two to five eyes each.

Uses.—Madder is a principal ingredient in nearly all the dyes used by
calico printers; and for woollen goods it furnishes blue, black, purple,
red, buff, orange, olive, yellow, brown, and many other colors. The
profit of the crop is immense, and the market not easily glutted. The
haulm has been sometimes fed to cattle; but it is rarely used, as it tinges
with a red color, not only the milk, but also the urine, the perspiration,
and even the bones. It was formerly used as a medicine for the cure of
jaundice, but it is now known to possess no curative properties whatever.

WELD.

Description.—Weld, a native of the south of Europe, is an imperfect
biennial, with small, fusiform roots, and a smooth, wand-like, leafy stem,
from one to three feet in height. The leaves are dark green, linear-
lanceolate, single-ribbed, obtuse, and entire: the flowers, which blow in
July, are small, greenish-white, without much smell, and grow in large
terminal clusters, which are many-flowered. It belongs to the mignonette
family (Resedacee), and is sometimes found in earth brought from a great

PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 171

depth, as the rubbish of coal-mines. Weld is cultivated for the sake of
its stalks, flowers, and leaves, which afford a fine yellow dye, used for the
coloring of cotton, silk, wool, and other substances. In conjunction with
indigo, it forms a beautiful green; and it is preferred to all other dyes
for the production of a lively green lemon-yellow; but the material to be
colored must first be prepared with a mordant of alum and cream tartar,
in order to render the yellow permanent. It is the most easily cultivated
of all the plants used for the preparation of dyes.

Soil.— It grows on a great variety of svils, but fertile loams produce
the best return. It is rather an exhausting crop; for which reason it
has never been very extensively cultivated.

Culture.—The soil is usually well prepared, by ploughing and harrow-
ing, and the seed sown, either broad-cast or in drills, during the month
ot May, or later, and lightly covered. From two quarts to one gallon
is sown to the acre; and, if the seed is not very fresh, it is steeped in
water for two or three days previously. It is also cultivated in the same
manner as the grasses, being sumetimes mixed with clover and grass
seeds, and plucked out from among them when it is in flower. Sown
among corn, on very rich soils, it occasionally answers very well, pro-
vided that the plants are weeded, hoed, and the ground well stirred, as
soon as the corn crop has been removed. ‘The drill system is, however,
much the best; the drills being made twelve inches apart, and the
plants, after they shoot up, thinned out until they stand at six inches
distance from each other in the row. They then admit of cultivation in
the usual mode.

Gathering the Crop.— The plants flower in July of the second year,
and the proper period for pulling them is when the bloom has been pro-
duced the whole length of the stems, and the plants are just beginning
to turn of a light, or yellowish color. The plants are pulled up by the
roots in small handsful, which are tied round with a wisp of straw or one
of the stalks, and set upright, in stacks of four or five bundles each, to
dry. When sufficiently dry, which is usually in about a fortnight, they
are bound up into larger bundles, containing sixty handsful each, and
weighing about fifty-six pounds. Sixty of these bundles constitute a
load. In this state the plants are ready for sale; or they may be stacked
and preserved for a number of years, without injury.

Value of the Crop.— The produce varies actording to the nature of
the season, from half a ton to two tons per acre; and its cultivation
sometimes yields a large profit— but the demand is uncertain, being
sometimes very trifling, and at others so great as to raise the price to a
very high figure.

172 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Saving the Seed. — For this purpose a sufficient number of the largest
and healthiest plants are set aside, and left stand until the seed are per-
fectly ripe. The latter are very easily separated.

Uses. —It is used in dyeing for imparting a yellow color to cotton,
woollen, mohair, silk, linen, ete. Blue cloths are changed to green by
being dipped in a decoction of it, and Dutch pink owes to it the yellow
color which is its peculiar characteristic.

WOAD.

Description. — The woad (Isatis tinctoria), one of those plants which
yield the deep-blue coloring matter so greatly valued in the arts, was
most extensively cultivated in Europe previous to the introduction of the
indigo of commerce. It is a very hardy triennial plant, with a hairy,
branching stalk, which rises to the height of from three to five feet, very
leafy, and panicled at the top. The panicle is composed of many com-
pound racemose branches, covered with minute lanceolate leaves, which,
as also the stalks, have a yellow color. The leaves, which are numerous,
and small, are also of a bright yellow. The root of the plant is tapering
and fibrous.

Soil.— A good crop may be obtained upon alluvial soils, but strong
soils are preferable, provided they are not too much inclined to clay.
Wet, moist lands will not answer; and the plant flourishes best in a rich,
deep, mellow soil, such as may be found along the borders of large rivers,
more especially if the latter is broken up for it immediately from a
state of sward.

Preparation of the Soil and Culture of the Plant. —The ground is
usually ploughed deeply in the fall, reploughed in the spring, and cross-
harrowed; but as by this method it is next to impossible to reduce the
old turf in one year, and the plants are endangered by the attacks of the
grub and wire-worm, paring and burning are resorted to where the sward
is rough, and abounding with rushes and sedge-grass. The seed is com-
monly sown from March to July; though early sowing is preferable, as
the plants come up stronger, and yield a larger return during the first
season. The seed is generally sown broadcast; but a better method of
planting is in rows, allowing a sufficient space between each to admit of
the use of a cultivator. For broadcast sowing from five to six pounds
of seed are required to the acre; but when drilled in, two pounds are
amply sufficient. When procurable, new seed is always to be used in
preference to old, which is steeped some time before being put into the
ground, to facilitate its germination. The after-culture comprises the
usual routine of hoeing, thinning, stirring the earth, and weeding.

PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. Py fe:

Gathering. —If sown early, the leaves of the plants are ready for har-
vesting in July, which is done as soon as the Jeaves are full grown, and
while they still retain their perfect green color, and succulence. If
allowed to remain until they begin to pale, they lose not only in quan-
tity, but also in quality. The leaves are collected in baskets, which are
proportioned in number to the extent of the crop. They are picked off
by hand, being grasped firmly, and separated from the stem by a sudden
twist. In favorable seasons, and on well-managed lands, the plants will
often yield two or three crops of leaves; but seldom more than two are
gathered, which are sometimes mixed together in the manufacture. The
after-croppings, when taken, are carefully kept apart from the others, as
their mixture with the first would injure the value of the entire crop.
The average product is a ton to a ton and a half of green leaves to the
acre. The haulm is either burned for manure, or carried to the barn-
yard, and added to the compost-heap.

Preparation of the Dye.—The leaves are bruised by machinery, to
press out the watery part, afterwards formed into balls and fermented,
reground, and fermented in vats, wherein the dye is separated in the
same manner as that from the indigo plant.

Saving the Seed.—For this purpose the leaves are allowed to remain on
some of the plants during the second year. When it ripens in July or
August, it is then treated like turnip-seed.

Uses.—Woad is extensively used in dyeing, as a basis for black, and
other colors.

TURMERIC.

Description—Turmerie (Sanguinaria Canadensis,) is a plant peculiar
to North America, with a perennial root, fleshy, round, and abruptly ter-
minated, which varies from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in
diameter, and in length from two to four inches. The external color of
the root is brownish, but internally it has a red appearance, and, when
cut, discharges an abundance of orange-colored juice. The scape, which
is surmounted by a single flower, rises from one end of the root to the
height of six or seven inches. It flowers in March or April. The leaf-
stalks, which are thicker than the seape, rise from the same part of the
root. The leaf-stalks and scape are surrounded at the root by a common
sheath. They are of an orange color, deepest near their junction with
the root, and becoming paler near the leaves and flowers, where it is
blended with green. The seeds, numerous, round, and pointed, are con-
tained in a capsule, which is oblong, swelling in the middle, acute at
both ends, and two-valved. .

ie *

174 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Soil.—This plant inhabits a rich, loose soil, and, though it generally
delights in fertile locations, yet it will grow and flourish in sandy, almost
arid land.

Uses.—The juice of the root makes a fine orange-colored dye, used for
dyeing flannels, woollen cloths, cottons, silk, and linens. The root is
used medicinally, both in tincture and in decoction. Under cultivation,
the plant is susceptible of great improvement, and may be made a profit-
able branch of culture as a dye.

SUMACH

Description. —Sumach is a shrubby plant, several varieties of which
are indigenous to the United States. It grows from one to three feet
high, and the stems, which throw out numerous branches, are covered
with a brown bark. The flowers are greenish-white, and the leaves pin-
nate, with an odd trifoliate leaflet, angularly incised, and pubescent.
The fruit is a round drupe, about as large as a pea; and the juice, which
is acrid and milky, contains both tannie and gallic acids.

Varteties.—These are very numerous, but the principal are the Rhus
glabrum and Rhus coriaria, powerful astringents, as well as dyes; and
the hus cotinus, or Venice sumach, which is extensively used in dyeing.

Soil.—Sumach will grow on the most rocky and worthless land, and,
if managed properly, such tracts will yield a larger return from a crop
of sumach than they would under any other vegetable, even with the aid
of careful and costly culture.

Climate.—It is a well-known fact that the quality of sumach depends
on the heat of the climate in which it is grown, and, consequently, that
produced in Virginia excels in quality that grown in Delaware, as much
as that of the latter State surpasses the sumach gathered in New York or
Massachusetts.

Cultivation.—The European varieties, R. coriaria and R. cotinus, have
as yet only been raised as ornamental shrubs, in the nurseries of the
United States. The R. glabrum grows spontaneously. No attempt seems
to have been made to propagate it from seed, or to introduce into common
use the foreign plants, which would doubtless arrive at equal perfection
in the Southern States to that attained by them in Spain, Portugal, Sicily,
and Syria. In the United States the ordinary practice is to cut over the
growth every year, and, by keeping it down, procure an abundance of
sprouts of the first quality.

Preparation for market.—The plant must be cut in clear weather, and
spread on a floor in such a manner as to allow it to dry rapidly; for,
when fermentation begins in a small portion of it, the whole mass soon

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PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC 175

becomes seriously impaired. When dry, the plants may be cut up by a
straw-cutter, and put into sacks for market, or be ground fine in a bark-
mill.

Uses.—R. glabrum, R. coriaria, and R-cotinus, are used in dyeing and
calico-printing; the latter variety, especially, producing beautiful golden
and orange yellows. The two first-named varieties are used in tanning
morocco.

BASTARD SAFFRON.

Description.—This is an annual plant, a native of Asia, known to bota-
nists as the Carthamus tinctorius. It has a stiff, ligneous stalk, which

grows to the height of two feet and a half or three feet high, and divides
upward into numerous branches. —

Soil and Climate.—It thrives equally well in a light soil, or in a rich,

friable, black earth, and is cultivated in various parts of Europe, espe-

cially in the Levant, Spain, and Germany. It is likewise produced in
Egypt, and may be readily cultivated in the Southern States of the
Union.

Culture.—The seed is sown in rows, or deposited in patches, two feet
distant each way; but, after the young plants make their appearance
above the ground, they are thinned out, until only two or three remain
together in one place. The soil is well stirred, and kept free from weeds,
until August, when the flowers begin to expand. The petals of the
florets are then cut off, and dried in the shade, or ona kiln. This ope-
ration is performed in the early part of each day until October, when the
plants are pulled up, sheaved, shocked, and threshed, to obtain the seeds.
The stalks are burned, and the ashes used for manure.

176 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Uses.—The petals are used in painting, and also for dyeing silks. A
beautiful rouge is made from them. The seeds furnish an oil, which is
used by painters and in pharmacy.

TEASEL.

Description.—This plant, a native of Europe, is cultivated with eminent
success In Germany, in some parts of England, and in the United States.
It is an herbaceous biennial, growing from four to six feet in height, the
stem and leaves rough and prickly. The flowers are whitish in color,
with very numerous pale purple anthers, in a close, obtuse, conical head,
the intermediate scales of which are bristly at the edges, with rigid and
hooked points.

Varieties.—There are three varieties: the fuller’s teasel (Dipsacus ful-
lorum), wild teasel (D. sylvestris), and small teasel, or shepherd’s staff
(D. pilosus). The first variety is the only one cultivated, the others being
of no use whatever.

Soil and Culture.—The soil should be a deep, rich, moist loam, and the
cultivation as careful and thorough as for any garden crop. The seed is
sown in spring, but the crop does not mature until autumn of the follow-
ing year; and in order to procure an annual crop, the following plan has
been used by some cultivators. The seed is planted in two rows, sixteen
inches apart, and a space of twelve inches left between the plants in the
row. Then, at a distance of four feet, two more rows are planted, as
before, and so on, alternately, over the entire field. The open spaces
serve for the crop of the following year, and are manured by means of a
hand-cart. Turnip seed are frequently sown on the vacant spaces.
Others sow the seed in rows eighteen inches apart, and subsequently thin
them to a distance of four inches from each other in the row. The plants
should be kept clear of weeds, and carefully tended. The same piece of
land, if well cultivated, will bear a good crop for several years in succes-
sion, and the quantity of seed sown varies from one to two pecks per acre,
according to the method of cultivation. If sown broadeast, as is done in
England, the latter quantity will be required; but if the American drill
system is adopted, which is far preferable, the former will suffice.

Gathering the Crop.—The ripeness of the teasel is ascertained by its
color, which must be of a greenish-yellow. If entirely yellow, it is an
indication that it has been cut too late, and the strength is gone. If
quite green it is not good, as then the teeth all run one way, and do not
come back, not having had sufficient sun. In harvesting the crop, the
beads are cut off as they become ripe; though ordinarily the work is

PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 1%

done at three different times, with intervals of ten days between each.
The operator, whose hands are covered with a pair of stout gloves, is
furnished with a short-bladed knife, having a string attached to the
handle, which is passed around his wrist. He seizes the ripe heads, cuts
them off with about nine inches of the stem, and ties them up in handsful,
with a perfectly-ripened stem. In the evening they are placed in a dry
shed, and subsequently, when the weather is clear, they are exposed to
the heat of the sun, until they become perfectly dry. They are then
stowed away in a dry room, where they remain until sorted for market,
when they are divided into three classes, and done up with great care
and neatness. The bur must be one and a half inches long, in order to
be marketable.

Saving the Seed.—A few of the finest and best plants are left uncropped,
and when the seed is ripe, only the largest and terminating heads are cut
off, the seed separated by the aid of a flail, and cleansed with a sieve or
winnowing machine,

Use.—To raise the nap on woollen cloths, for which their hooked teeth
admirably adapt them. For this purpose they are fixed in parallel rows
on the circumference of a broad wheel, against which the cloth is pressed
while it is revolving. Many attempts have been made to substitute ma-
chinery for the teasel, but without success —all machines having proved
inefficient or injurious. The scales of the teasel are just strong enough
to raise the wool, giving way before they can injure the cloth. The
dressing of a piece of cloth, usually thirty-six yards in length, requires
from 1500 to 2000 teasels, as they are repeatedly used in different parts
of the process. Those held in highest estimation are raised in Germany,
where great pains are taken in their culture. The English, being of an
inferior character, command a smaller price; yet they are frequently
imported into the United States, as the German teasel. The produce of
Connecticut is as fine as any of the imported, and farther south they
might be brought to still greater perfection, and yield a very handsome
return to the cultivator.

Value of the Crop.— From eighty-five thousand to one hundred and
fifty thousand, and in some cases three hundred thousand teasels, have
been gathered from one acre of ground. The price ranges from $1.50 to
$3 per thousand; and at the minimum quotation the profit would be
amply sufficient to repay the trouble of their culture.

COLZA.

Description and Use.—But little cultivated, as yet, in the United States,
except among the German population of Texus, though of great import-
M

178 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

ance to the farmers of France and Belgium. Colza is a variety of the

cabbage family, entirely distinct from rape, and two species of it are

cultivated in France. One, a biennial, is sown in summer or autumn of

one year, and matures its seed the following summer. The other is sown

in the spring, and matures the same year. The first species, the Brassica
campestris of botanists, is called winter colza; the other, the Brassica
arvensis of naturalists, is known as spring colza. It is cultivated for its
oily seed, from which the oil is extracted by pressure, and used to burn
in lamps, as well as for many other useful purposes. The cake remain-
ing after the extraction of the oil, forms an excellent article of food for
cattle, and is sometimes used as a manure.

Soil.— To insure good crops, the seed should be sown on rich, light
soils, well manured, and carefully worked; though very satisfactory
returns have been received from light and gravelly soils. It flourishes
in soils of a slightly clayey nature, if they are light in texture.

Sowing the Seed of winter Colza.—'This is done in three ways, viz.:
broadcast, in rows, and in beds for subsequent transplantation; but very
rarely by the latter mode, except where labor is very cheap and abun-
dant. Drill-barrows are used for sowing the seed in rows, which are laid
off at a distance of eighteen inches from each other — thus admitting of
the use of a cultivator for clearing out the weeds. The period of sowing
is generally from the 15th of July to the 15th of August, and about six
pounds of seed are used to the acre when sown broadcast, but only about
half the quantity when planted in drills; the seeds being dropped about
one inch apart in the direction of the rows.

Culture.—If planted in rows, the cultivator is run through them in the
month of March, to clean out the weeds, and loosen the soil; after which
they require no farther attention until harvest.

Gathering the Crop. — The winter colza matures about the beginning
of July, and, as the seeds are apt to shed, it is necessary to cut the plants
before they are fully ripe. This is done when the seed-pods begin to turn
yellow and become transparent, at which time the seeds, though still
tender, are of a dark brown color, and will ripen in the stack or mow.
When over-ripe, the plants are cut only in the morning and evening,
while the dew is on them. If the crop is a heavy one, the colza, imme-
diately after being bound in sheaves, is stacked in the field where grown,
in cone-shaped stacks, so constructed as to exclude rain, where it remains
until the grain has fully matured, which is generally in eight or ten days.
The fermentation which takes place in the stacks, gives the grain a fine
eolor, and adds to its quality. A small crop is commonly taken at once
into the barn, and threshed; but large crops are sometimes trodden out

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PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 179.

in the field by the feet of horses, the ground being covered with stout
hempen cloth. If the seed is kept in bulk after it is threshed, it should
frequently be turned and stirred to prevent it from heating, to which it
is subject. As it keeps better when mixed with the chaff, it should only
be cleaned when about to be sold or to be pressed.

Extracting the Oil.—This is done by putting the seed in bags, and sub-
mitting it to the pressure of a powerful press. The refuse, like that of
flaxseed, is called oil-cake.

Spring Colza is very productive in new soils, but, like all oily grains
sown in the spring, it is a very uncertain crop. It must be sown during
the latter part of May, to insure its arrival at maturity in proper season
for harvesting. Sown broadcast, or in drills, on the soils of recently-
drained marshes, it is one of the most profitable plants that can be raised
on them. Occupying the ground but a short time, it requires but little
cultivation.

RAPE.

Description.—The rape (Brassica napus,) a native of Great Britain, is
a biennial plant of the turnip family, having a caulescent or woody fusi-
form root, unfit to be eaten by animals. Its leaves are smooth, and, when
cultivated, it produces an abundance of them, as well as of seeds. The
leaves are edible, and, from the seeds, oil of a very superior quality is
expressed, which is extensively used in the arts and for machinery, be-
cause it does not produce spontaneous combustion like most other oils.
It has never found great favor in this country, but now that sperm and
other similar oils have become scarce and expensive it might be re-
muuerative, if the proper attention was paid to its cultivation, and some
pains were taken to ascertain what the peculiar nature of its oil more
particularly fitted it for, In England it is found to be an excellent
article for the fattening of cattle, who are very fond of it. A bushel of
the seed will generally yield a gallon of oil, and the cake left after the
expression of the oil affords a rich food for cattle. From 50 to 70
bushels is the average per acre.

Soil.—The soils best suited to this plant, and on which it flourishes
most, are those of a deep, rich, dry, and kindly nature; but it will thrive
on almost any soil, provided it is made sufficiently rich.

Culture.—Being a hardy plant, it requires less culture and manure
than the turnip, and may be grown in situations where the latter cannot
be produced with profit. It is cultivated in the same manner as the
turnip; the preparation of the land, its formation into drills, the manu-
ring, and the sowing of the seed, being the same; but the mode may be

*
180 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

varied in accordance with the time of sowing, the nature of the soil, and
the locality. Ifthe seed is sown broadcast, as is the practice with many
cultivators, four quarts will be required per acre; but if drilled in, one-
half that quantity will be sufficient. The drills may be placed as close
together as will admit of the use of a cultivator. If designed as food for
sheep or cattle during the autumn and winter, the seeds are sown in
June: but if intended to produce and ripen seed the following year,
August or September will be early enough. The subsequent culture con-
sists in hoeing, weeding, thinning out the plants, and keeping the soil
in good condition.

Gathering the Crop.—The seed ripens in July, and the plant must be
harvested with great care to prevent loss from handling, shaking, or
carriage, as, when the pods are quite dry, a very slight cause is suffi-
cient to make them part with the seed. Fine weather should be selected
for harvesting the crop, which it will be advantageous to thresh out at
once, either on the field, or in the barn. If on the field, the ground
should be covered with large canvass sheets, to prevent the grain from
being tramped into the soil. As the seed is liable to heat, it must not be
left on the threshing-floor, but be divided into small parcels, and fre-
quently turned. In ordinary seasons, on rich soils, the produce will
average from forty to seventy bushels to the acre; but much depends on
the nature and condition of the land, and on the tillage.

Uses.—The oil pressed out of the seed is devoid of smell, when purified,
and burns with a brilliant, clear flame. The cake left, after the oil is
expressed, furnishes a nourishing and very agreeable food for cattle,
which thrive and fatten on it; it forms also a good manure for various
crops, particularly root crops, when sown on the drill system. As a green
food for cattle, its leaves are unsurpassed by any other vegetable; and
the produce, when well manured, is enormously large. Manure makes
the stalks so tender and juicy, that. when cut into small pieces, and fed
in the green state to cattle, they will consume every particle of it. It is
also an excellent preparation for wheat, because, being harvested early,
sufficient time is allowed to get the ground in readiness for that grain.

SUNFLOWER.

Description.—The sunflower (Helianthus annuus), a native of America,
is a tall, majestic plant, having a stout, woody stalk, and bearing a flower,
four and sometimes five inches in diameter. The flowers are of a bril-
liant yellow color, which, together with the popular, but erroneous idea,
that they always face the sun, gave origin to the name. Each flower

felt ere

PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 181

will furnish about a gill of seed, which yields a most excellent oil. Its
value as an oil-plant has been known at least a century; yet, strangely
enough, but little care or systematic attention has been devoted to it. It
has filled a vacant place in the flower-bed, or in front of a shrubbery,
while its more useful qualities have been entirely overlooked.

Soil and Cultwre.—It will flourish in almost any soil, but for profitable
cultivation it requires a good soil, well worked, and thoroughly manured,
as well as cleaned. One acre of land will contain 25,000 plants, at a dis-
tance of twelve inches from each other. Sow early in the spring, in
rows, leaving two feet between the rows. After they have attained the
height of three feet, they require but little cultivation, beyond keeping
the ground free from weeds. The produce will be according to the nature
of the soil and mode of cultivation; but the average has been found to
range between fifty and seventy bushels to the acre, which will yield the
same number of gallons of oil.

Uses. — The oil is excellent for table use, being equal to olive-oil, for
burning in lamps, and for the manufacture of soaps. The cake, left after
all the oil has been expressed from the seed, furnishes a good article of
food for swine and poultry. On the continent of Europe the stalks are
used for pea-sticks, fuel, etc. and the leaves for fodder. ‘Ten per cent.
of potassa may be obtained from the stalks when burned; and the green
leaves, dried and powdered, make excellent fodder for milch-cows, when
mixed with bran. Poultry are very fond of the seeds.

THE CASTOR-OIL PLANT.

Description. — The Palma-Christi (Ricinus Communis), or Castor-Oil
Plant, grows in various parts of the world, but is indigenous to the

West Indies. As grown in the United States, it is an annual, herbaceous
plant; yet within the tropics,"and in the adjacent warm climates, it
16

182 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

becomes quite a large tree, lasting for several years, having a woody
trunk, of the size of a man’s body, and growing to the height of fifteen
or twenty feet. In the colder climates the stem rises to the height of
from three to six feet, is round, in color greenish or reddish brown and
blue, and branched. The leaves, which are mounted on long, round
petioles, are peltato-palmate, and eight or ten-lobed ; the lobes lanceolate
and serrated. The capsules are supported on stalks which are somewhat
larger than the capsules themselves. They are covered with spines, and
are three-celled, each cell containing an oblong, spotted, brownish seed,
from which a powerfully-purgative oil is extracted. This property, how-
ever, is dissipated under the effects of a high heat.

Varieties. —'There are five varieties enumerated, distinguished princi-
pally by the color and pruinose condition of the stem — Ricinus Africa-
nus, J. macrophyllus, R. leucocarpus, R. lividus, and R. viridis.

Soil. — The plant thrives best on a light, sandy loam, although it may
be cultivated with success in almost any soil tolerably fertile, or in any
climate and situation where Indian corn will thrive.

Culture. — In the cooler parts of the Union it may be planted in hills,
distant two feet by three, as early in spring as the warmth of the ground
and season will admit. Two seeds should be planted in each place. In
the South, where the season is longer, and the plant assumes the cha-
racter of a tree, the hills should be six or seven feet apart in one direc-

tion, and four feet in the other. One seed is sufficient for each hill, —

covered to the depth of two inches. The only after-culture necessary is
to keep the ground well hilled up to the plants, and to eradicate the
weeds whenever they make their appearance. As the seeds ripen, the
capsules become dry and elastic, and have a tendency to fly off from the
plant on the least touch, causing thereby a great loss of seed. To pre-
vent this, while harvesting the crop, the branches should be separated
from the plants as soon as the capsules begin to explode, and spread on
the floor of a close room. After the beans and shells have separated,
the husks may be winnowed in a winnowing machine.

Procuring the Oil.—This is done by two methods — expression and de-
coction. 1. Expression.—The seeds are first slightly heated, and subse-

quently subjected to powerful pressure under a hydraulic press, when a_

thick, whitish oil exudes, which is boiled for some time in a large quan-
tity of water, until it dissolves out the mucilage, and coagulates the albu-
men. The clean oil is then removed, and boiled with a very small quan-
tity of water, to drive off the acrid principle. 2. Decoction.—The seeds
are bruised first, and then boiled in water until the oil rises to the sur-
face, when it is skimmed off, and again boiled, to remove the acrid

i ee

PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 183

principle. This oil is usually of a darker color than the first. The man-
ufacture of the oil is an extensive branch of business in several parts of
the Union.

Uses.—The oil expressed from the seeds is used as a medicine, and is
also prepared for illuminating purposes, for the lubrication of machinery,
and for the manufacture of soaps. The cake left after the expression of
the oil is very advantageously applied to land, as a manure for wheat
and other crops.

CHAPTER IV.

THE KITCHEN GARDEN.

VEGETABLES : — ARTICHOKE— ASPARAGUS — BORAGE — BEAN — BEET — BORECOIN
— BROCCOLI — CABBAGE — CARDOON — CARROT — CAULIFLOWER — CELERY —
CHIVE — CORN — CORN-SALAD — CRESS — CUCUMBER — DANDELION —EGG-PLANT
— ENDIVE — GARLIC — HOP — HORSE-RADISH — LEEK — LETTUCE — MOREL —
MUSHROOM — MUSTARD — ONION —— OKRA — PARSNIP — PEA — PEPPER — PUMP-
KIN — RADISH — RAPE — RHUBARB — SALSIFY — SCORZONERA — SEA-KALE —
SHALLOT — SKIRRET — SPINACH — SQUASH —- TOMATO —-TURNIP. HERBS, &C.:
— ANISE — BALM — BASIL — CARAWAY — CAMOMILE — CORIANDER — CHERVIL
— DILL — FENNEL — FOXGLOVE — HOREHOUND — HYSSOP — LAVENDER —
LIQUORICE — MARJORAM — MINT — PARSLEY — PENNY-ROYAL — PEPPERMINT —
PURSLANE — ROSEMARY — RUE — SAFFRON—SAGE — SAVORY — TANSY — THYME;
— WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS.

I. VEGETABLES.

Articnoxr. — There are only two or three varieties of this plant culti-
vated, the Globe and the Green. The heads, in their immature state, and

before their blue, thistle-like flowers open, are cut and boiled in salt and —

water, the edible part being the fleshy substance on the bottom of the scales,
which, to be relishable, has to be dipped in a nicely-prepared sauce of
butter and spices, though it is frequently eaten as a salad in a raw state.
Culture, §c.— The artichoke is propagated from seed or from offsets.
If by the former, sow the seed in rows a foot apart, as soon as the frost is
out of the ground. Thin the plants to a foot apart, in the row; and, in the

fall of the year, put out the plants in clumps of four, in rows three feet —

apart, and the rows six feet asunder. They will produce their fruit the
next year. When winter approaches, earth the roots up well, and before
the frost sets in, cover all well over with litter. Open it at the breaking
up of the frost, dig all the ground well between the rows, and level the

earth down from the plants. The young ones, or offsets, which gruw out —
from the sides, must be pulled off; and, if a new plantation is wanted, they —

may be set out, and will bear late the same year. ;

ArticHoxe (JervsaLem).— This is a small sunflower, with nutritious —

tubers, less in size than potatoes. (184)

™ eo

aan

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 185

Culture, §-c. — It is usually propagated by sets from the roots, in April,
and grows in any soil which is moist, sandy, and light. It is cultivated like
the potato. When raised for its tuber, it is liable to become troublesome,
from tne germinating power of even the smallest piece left in the soil. It
keeps in the ground all winter, or may be preserved under sand. In the
Middle States it thrives well. It yields from 150 to 200 bushels of roots,
which are eagerly devoured by swine, and, when steamed or boiled, are quite
palatable.

Asparacus. — There are two principal varieties, the purple-topped and
‘he green-topped, the first-named being generally preferred.

Culture, §-c.—In the making of asparagus-beds, a proper soil is the
first thing needed — one not too wet, nor too strong, nor stubborn, but mod-
erately light and pliable, and well manured. ‘The situation should be one
exposed to the sun, ranging east and west. The seed may be sown from
the middle of February to the middle of April, —usually about the last of
March. Plant five or six inches apart, one inch in depth, putting two seeds
in each hole, or sow in drills made the same distance asunder. When the
weather is dry, water the beds moderately ; also destroy all weeds. Tow-
ards the end of October, as soon as the stems are wholly withered, cut
them down, and spread them over the ground mixed with dung. The next
spring, every other plant must be transplanted into a bed, twelve inches
apart, if it is intended that they should attain another, or two years’ further
growth, before being finally planted out; or, they may be planted immedi:
ately in the beds for production. Many gardeners judiciously sow the seed
in beds where they are to remain for production. The best time for the
final removal is the end of March, if the soil be dry and the season forward.
The beds for regular production should be three feet wide; the usual prac-
tice is to trench the ground two spades deep, and then cover deep with well-
rotted manure. Growing asparagus in single rows three feet apart, giving
no dung in winter, merely clearing off the stalks and weeds in the fall, and
pointing over the surface about two inches deep with a fork, leaving it
rough as possible, is a mode highly commended. In the spring, when the
surface is quite dry, it is raked down, and abcut two inches of soil drawn
over the crowns from each side of the rows. When the gathering is nearly
over, the ground is stirred again, to loosen the tramping made im gathering
the crop. The hollow between the little ridges is then filled up with a
powerful compost, and the whole is then drenched with liquid manure.
This is summer cultivation.

In May, or early in June, the beds are in full production of young shoots,
which, when from two to five inches high, are fit for cutting, and as long as

the head continues compact and firm. Cut carefully. The seed is usually
16*

186 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

ripe in September; collect it; and, when the pulp and husk decay, clean
the seed with water, and then dry it.

Forcing. — In forcing asparagus, such plants may be inserted in hot-beds
as are five or six years old, and are of sufficient strength to produce vigor-
ous shoots. ‘To plant old shoots for the main forcing crop is, however,
erroneous. ‘The first plantation should be made about the first of October,
and, if it works well, will begin to produce in the course of four or five
weeks, and continue to do so for about three. The hot-bed may be made in
the usual way, and topped with six inches of light rich earth, and kept at
about 60° in the day time, and never below 50° at night. In planting, a
furrow is drawn the whole length of the frame; against one side of it the
first row or course is to be placed, the crown upright, and a little earth
drawn on to the lower end of the roots; all round on the edge of the bed,
some moist earth must be banked close to the outside roots.

The foliage of this vegetable is liable to be destroyed by the larve of two
beetles, and the only remedy is to pick off and destroy the affected parts.

Borace. —Its fresh leaves are boiled for a dinner dish, or are used in
salads. It is aromatic, and therefore sometimes used to flavor wine.

Culture, §-c.— A very fertile soil is not necessary; a light and dry

one is best suited. It is propagated by seed, sown in March or April, in
shallow drills, half a foot apart. ‘Transplanting is but little advantageous
or necessary.
_ Bean.—The best varieties are the Early Dwarf, Early Mazagan, and
the Early Long-pod, the Broad Windsor, and the Dutch Long-pod. The
first is early, the second is later, the third is very prolific, the fourth is large
and well-flavored, and the fifth best suited for a late crop. The bean comes
up in a week, ten days or a fortnight.

Culture, §-c.—The times of sowing, and the situation, for the earliest
crops, are the same as for the pea. The seeds may be deposited in drills, an
inch and a half or two inches deep, covered and pressed down. It is some-
times customary to plant beans in the same rows with cabbages, and also
with potatoes; a bean being planted alternately with every potato-set, or
cabbage-plant. All the routine culture consists in destroying the weeds,
slightly earthing up the stems, stirring the soil, and watering in very dry
weather. A very late crop may be obtained by cutting over a summer crop,
a few inches above the ground, as soon as the plants have come into flower.
New stems will spring from the shoots in abundance, and continue bearing
till frost.

The Kidney Bean includes the common dwarf (our bush bean), growing
twelve or eighteen inches high, and the runner growing ten or twelve
feet. For the dwarf sorts, the first sowing may be made in the beginning

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 187

of April, the second about the middle of the month, and after that till along
towards August. The rows may be two feet asunder, and the beans depos-
ited in drills from two to three inches apart, and covered to the depth of
one to one and a half inches. ‘The routine culture consists in watering in
dry weather, where that operation is practicable, and using lime-water, if,
which is often the case, the plants are attacked by snails or slugs.

The twining sorts, being rather more tender than the dwarfs, are not
sown until later in the season. If the soil is in good condition, and the
culture thorough, one sowing in May will produce plants which will con-
tinue bearing, from the middle of June, till the plants are destroyed by the
frosts; but the green pods should be gathered before the seeds formed in
them begin to swell. The rows should be in the direction of north and
south, should be at least four feet apart, and the beans should be placed in
shallow drills, three inches asunder, and covered about two inches with soil.
Where the plants come above ground, they may be slightly earthed up, and,
in another week, when they begin to form runners, they should be sticked
with branches or rods, of six or eight feet in length. In many cases, the
scarlet runner may be planted where it will not only produce excellent
crops, but afford shelter or shade to a walk, a grassplat or a cucumber-bed.
Where sticks or rods are scarce, wires, or even twine, may be substituted,
and in this way the scarlet runner may be trained against wooden walls,
pales, or other fences, or made to cover walls. The following (Fig. 98)

Fig. 98.

Wi
V

Wy
i

is a good mode of arranging thread or cord for the support of scarlet run-
ners. ‘Take half-inch and two-inch wide laths or rods, join them at the top
80 as to leave the ends a few inches beyond the junction, and stick the

188 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

lower ends into the ground, just within the lines of the plants. Connect
these triangles by similar rods at the bottom, about three inches above
the soil. ‘Take a cord, fix it firmly to the lower bar, carry it over the upper
bar, which is placed in the cross formed by the long ends left, as seen in the
figure. Make a loop a yard long, carry the cord again over the plank (that
is around it), and fix the other end to the lower rod on the other side. In
like manner, go on through the whole length, making the loops all of the
same length, and through these suspend a long stick or bar (the section of
which is shown at the right hand), and to this bar hang bags of sand, as
many as may be wanted. ‘Train the plants up the strings, and when they ;
are well grown, the whole will be covered ; and when in flower, the appear-
ance will be very fine. By this method, the cords, being fixed at the lower
_ bars, will not pull the plants out of the earth, the tension and contraction of
the cords being counteracted by the bar suspended in the loops, which is
raised or lowered by every change of atmospheric moisture. Very abundant
crops, however, may be obtained without any resort to staking, by merely
stopping the plants after they begin to form pods.

For general cultivation, the Early Mohawk, Early Sia-Weeks, Eazly
Valentine, Yellow Six-Weeks, Late Valentine, and the Lima, are highly
thought of, and very extensively grown in this country.

Beer. — Among the more common and useful varieties of this vegetable
are the French Sugar, or Amber, Mangel-Wurtzel, Green, Yellow Turnip- r
rooted, Early Blood Turnip-rooted, Early Dwarf Blood, Early White Scar-
city, Long Blood Red.

Culture, §c. — Sow beets from the early part of May until June, in
drills about three inches apart, thinned to ten or twelve inches in the row.
For early use, a small bed of the early turnip-rooted may be sown as soon
in the spring as the ground can be fitted for the seed, and these wil] give
good roots in June or July. For fall or winter use, or for general crops,
beets should not be sown too early, for such, if suffered to stand, become
stringy and fibrous, and not unfrequently shoot up to seed.

A rich, deep soil, is best for the beet, and for all top-rooted plants ; and
they should, after thinning, be kept free from weeds. They should be
gathered before severe frosts occur, and may be pitted or put in cellars for —
winter use. The thinning of beets must be done while they are young, and
the young plants are excellent for greens.

Within a few years the culture of the sugar-beet has received much atten-
tion in this country, not only for the purpose of sugar-making, but on ac
count of its being one of the most valuable roots grown for the feeding of
animals during the fall, winter, or spring months. 1

The ground should be prepared by deep ploughing or harrowing, until it

OL eS eee

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 189

is fine. Oper two furrows with the plough two feet apart, and put in a suf-
ficient quantity of manure, according to the state of the ground ; cover the
dung with the plough by throwing a furrow of earth upon it, ridging as
high as can be well done; level the surface of the ridge over the dung, tak-
ing care that there is a full proportion of earth over the manure for the seed
to vegetate in. Sow with a drill or by the hand, and complete the process
by rolling.

_ To Keep Beets. —'To preserve beets during the winter, put them in a dry
cellar, with dry sand between them, taking care to expose them a day pre-
vious to the air, to carry off the moisture. In quantities, they may be pre-
served out-of-doors as follows: Take them up three weeks before the hard
frost comes, cut off their leaves, let them lie two or three days upon straw or
boards ; then lay a little straw upon the ground, and, in a fine, dry day, place
ten bushels of beets — those that are good — upon it, in aconical form. Put
a little straw smoothly over the heap; then cover the whole with six or
eight inches of earth, and place a green turf on the top, to prevent the earth
from being washed by rain from the point, before the frost sets in. The
whole heap will freeze during the winter, but the frost will not injure the
beets.

Borecotr. — The main varieties are Green Scotch Kale, German Curled,
Purple, Jerusalem, and Thousand-headed Cabbage. The last two grow to
four feet, and yield large numbers of sprouts.

Culture, gc. — Sow the seed in May; plants are set out in July. They
are better when touched slightly by the frost, and may be kept in the same
manner as cabbages, during winter. The stocks, in spring, send out numer-
ous tender shoots ; and one ounce of seed will produce nearly four thousand
plants.

Broccor1.— This vegetable is similar to the cauliflower in growth,
appearance, and flavor, but it is cultivated more easily, and is more certain
to head.

Culture, gc. —'The Early White and the White Cape are considered
Buperior, but the Purple Cape is the kind most cultivated. The seeds of the
last are sown towards the end of May, in the Middle States, and later for
winter supplies. In July, or when the plants are large enough, transplant
into very rich, dunged, and metlow earth; plant eighteen to twenty-four

inches apart each way, moisten the earth frequently with liquid manure,
and hoe and keep clean during their growth. If attacked by the ‘ Black
Fly,” a solution of brown or soft soap is good to destroy them.
Cazpace. — This is one of the most ancient and useful of all the cultivated
: vegetables.
Culture, §c.—The best soil is a strong, rich, substantial one, more

190 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

elayey than sandy, though it will grow in any soil, if it be well worked and
manured. They are grown either from hot-bed plants, or from seed in the
open ground. If the seed of the earlier sorts has been sown in a hot-bed,
they will be ready for removal when two or three inches high. In this
ease, as soon as the season will permit, prepare a bed, by digging out the
ground a foot deep, four feet wide, and to as great a length as the extent of
your operations will require. Fill this up with dung, cover with earth.to
the depth of four inches, and set your plants upon it in rows four inches
apart, and two inches apart in the row. Water them lightly, and, if conve-
nient, shade them for a day or two, and shelter them at night.

In the open ground, put your seed rows at six inches distance, and put the
seeds thin in the row; when up, thin them to three inches in the row, and
when two or three inches high, in order to perfect them, they may be taken
from the seed-bed, and put into fresh-dug, well-broken ground, at six inches
apart, every way. This is called pricking out.

Where their distances will allow, it is better to dig between the cabbages
unce or twice during their growth; and all the larger sorts should, about
the time that their heads are beginning to form, be earthed up.

Varieties. —'The varieties of cabbage are numerous. The earliest is the
Early Dwarf, then the Early Sea Green, then the Early York. The Sugar
Loaf, a sweet and rich variety, comes in in July and August. For winter
use, the Dwarf Green Savoy is much esteemed. For Drum Heads or other
large kinds, sow and transplant same as the Savoy. The Red Cabbage is
treated in the same manner as the Green Savoy.

To keep Cabbages.—'To preserve cabbages through the winter, lay out a
piece of ground four feet wide, and as long as the quantity to be preserved
inay require ; dig on each side of it a small trench, a foot deep, and throw
up the earth on the four-feet bed, the top of which should be made level and
smooth. Lay some poles or rails at a foot apart lengthwise upon the bed,
then put some smaller poles, or stout sticks, across, on the rails or poles,
putting these last at five or six inches apart. Upon these lay corn-stalks, or
twigs, or brush, not very thickly, but enough so to cover all over. ‘Then,
just as the frost is about to set in, take up the cabbages, knock off the dirt
from their roots, take off all dead or yellow leaves, and also some of the out-
side ones, put the cabbage-head downwards upon the bed, with the roots
sticking up, and cover them nearly up to the root with straw. Do not pack
them so that they will touch each other much; and secure the straw from
the operation of the wind. Out of this stack the cabbages may be taken
green and good in the spring, when the frost breaks up, and. from this stack
a supply may be obtained through the whole winter.

Diseases. — The diseases of the *abbage consist of clubbing of the roots

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 191

which arises from worms, and is produced by growing them too long in one
locality ; /ice, which are destroyed by infusion of tobacco, lime-dust, and
salt ; and cut-worms and slugs, which should be caught and destroyed before
sunrise, — or soot, tobacco, lime, &ec., should be worked in about the roots
with a trowel.

Carpoon. — This is a species of artichoke, comprising some half a dozen
principal varieties.

Culture, §c.— The stalks of the leaves being thick, fleshy, and crisp,
are blanched, and used for salads, soups, and for stewing. Sow about the
last of April, in deep, light, moderately rich soil, in trenches about six
inches deep, twelve wide, and four feet apart, from centre to centre. Drop
three or four seeds together, at intervals of eighteen inches, and when they
come up, thin them out to single plants. Water frequently in summer, and
in a dry day, about the end of October, commence the operation of blanching.
by tying up the leaves with twisted hay-bands, after which earth may or
may not be heaped around them, in the manner of earthing celery, according
as they are to be used early or during winter.

Carror.— There are several varieties of carrot, among which may be
enumerated the Karly Orange, Early Horn, and Altringham, for the table ;
and the Long, Lemon-colored, Blood-red, and Large White, for larger crops.
Other varieties are also highly thought of.

Culture, gc.—'The general culture is the same as that of the beet,
requiring a deep soil, well manured and worked. The main crops should
not be sown earlier than the middle of May, —though some may be sown a
month earlier, — as early carrots, like early beets, are apt to throw up seed
stalks, which render the vegetable worthless. For extensive culture, the
earth may be thrown into ridges two and a half feet apart, manure spread in
the furrows, and the ridges split and thrown back upon the manure, and the
seed sown on the top of the ridges, after partial leveling. A light rolling is
useful, to press the earth about the seed. The carrot will vegetate sooner,
and come forward more rapidly, if the seed, previously to sowing, is mixed
with sand or sandy loam, and kept moist until it begins to germinate, when it
must be sown and at once covered. The plants should be about four or five
inches apart in the rows, kept clear, and will be fit to gather late in the fall.
They may be preserved by being buried in sand, or in a cellar, but must be
kept secure against frost.

CautirLower. — This is an improved variety of the cabbage, the flowers
constituting a compact and delicious mass. The varieties cultivated in this
country are the Early White, Late White, and Purple.

Culture, §-c.— For spring eating, sow about the middle of September,
Prepare the ground by opening sfhall trenches, and dig in some earth in good

192 FARMER S HAND-BOOK.

compost, to receive the plants. When of a proper size, the plants should
be pricked out in a careful manner, and for them the warmest part of the
garden should be selected. Being very tender, they should always be put
under giass in severe weather. ‘They should not, however, be covered until
the weather is severe, and in the mean while the hoe should be trequently
used between them, in order to keep the earth dry about their stems. ‘Too
much covering weakens them. From their beds they may be planted out
in rows, like cabbages, only at rather greater distance, and taking care to
move a little earth along with them, about the middle of spring.

CreLery.— Of this vegetable there are the White, the Red, the Hollow,
and the Sold, the latter being considered the best.

Culture, §c.— Sow about the middle of April, in a rich, moist soil; if
not rich, make it so by mixing in fresh vegetable mould, or short, well-rotted
manure. Dig deep, and rake it fine and smooth. The seed should be sown
liberally all over the surface, and beat the bed evenly and firmly with a
clean spade ; then sift on a covering of a quarter of an inch of earth, and it
will vegetate as soon as cabbage-seed.

In the operations of after-culture, when either the plants left in the seed-
bed, or those removed, are from six to twelve inches high, or when the
latter have acquired a stocky growth, by four or five weeks’ nurture in the
intermediate bed, transplant them into trenches for blanching. For this
purpose, allot an open compartment. Mark out the trenches a foot wide,
and from three to three and a half distant, and dig out the trenches a foot
wide, lengthwise, and six or eight inches deep. Lay the earth dug out
equally on each side of the trench, put about three inches of rotten dung into
the trench, then pare the sides, and dig the dung and parings with an inch
or two of the loose mould at the bottom.

Trim the tops and roots of the plants, and then set them in single rows
along the middle of each trench, allowing four or five inches distance from
plant to plant. Give the plants water, from time to time, and let them be
shaded till they strike root and begin to grow. When eight or ten inches
high, draw the earth up to them, in dry weather, taking care not to bury
the hearts; repeat the earthing once in ten days, till the plants are fit for
use.

Cuive.— This is used as an excellent substitute for young onions 1n
spring salading. A single row, a few yards long, will supply a family.

Culture, §-c.—A light, moderately rich soil, is preferable. Plant in
May or June, in rows eight or nine inches apart, and four or five in a row
Plant off-sets from the bulbs, keep free from weeds, and in autumn they will
appear in large bunches, which may be dug and stored for winter.

Corn. — This useful plant has been fully treated in the preceding chapter,

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 193

as one of the heavy or field crops. There are, however, two or three
varieties used expressly for the table, which may be appropriately noticed
in this place. These varieties are Adams’ Early, Sweet or Sugar, and
Early White Flint.

Culture, ¢c. — Sow in hills about three and a half feet asunder, from
about the last of April to the first of July. The land should be rich, and
each hill manured, and only two or three stalks in a hill; the side-shoots
or suckers should be removed, and the land should be well dug and hoed.

Corn Satap.—This is also called Lambs’ Lettuce, and is raised for
winter and spring salads, for which purpose it has long been known.

Culture, gc. — It will flourish in any soil not very heavy, and is propa-
gated by seed sown in the spring, in drills six inches apart, or broadcast
and raked in. Should always be eaten when young.

Cress. — There is the Garden Cress. or Pepper Grass, the Indian Cress,
and the Water Cress. The first is well known.

Culture, §-c. — Garden Cress requires a moist soil, and, if possible, a cool
situation. ‘The Indian Cress must be sown in April, in a good strong soil,
in rows three inches apart, with sticks upon which the plants may climb.
The fruit is full-sized in August, when it is taken green and pickled in
vinegar. The Water Cress is a creeping, amphibious plant, cultivated
along streams, in rows, about eighteen inches apart. It is prolific, hardy,
may be often cut, and is of an agreeable flavor.

Cucumser.— The most noticeable ;sorts are the Early Short White
Prickly, Long Early Frame, Manchester Prize, Kerrison’s Long White
Spine, and the Long Prickly. The growth of the first-named is four to six
inches, sea-green color, forces well; the second-named grows from six to
ten inches, is a good bearer and fine variety; the third grows sometimes to
a prodigious length, dark-green color, and superior as respects quality and
productiveness ; the fourth is similar to the third-named; the fifth grows
about ten inches, and is a great bearer.

Culture, §-c.— For open air raising, cucumbers should be planted in
hills about four feet apart, early in May; those intended for pickling may

be planted later. Before planting, prepare the ground by mixing well-

rotted manure with the earth of each hill. ‘Two or three plants are enough
toa hill. The seed should be sown about half an inch deep; the plants
must be kept free from weeds, and in very dry weather they should be
watered. Some allow the plants to take their own course; others shorten
the stem by pinching off the buds; while others bury the runners at short
distances, and thus obtain new roots from the buried joints.

To have cucumbers earlier than by the ordinary way, make a hole under

a warm fence, and put some hot dung in it. On this put six inches of
17 N

194 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK,

fine, rich earth, and sow some seeds in it. Cover at night with a carpet,
mat, or other article. When the plants come up, and before they show the
rough leaf, plant two in a flower-pot, or small tub, or pail; or let the seeds
be originally planted in such as these, or, what perhaps is better, in some
large turnips, scooped out and filled with earth for the purpose. The first
pots may be put into a bed prepared for them, and covered as before, where
they are to stand until cucumbers sown in the natural ground come up,
when they may be turned out with the ball of earth and planted. Or, if
planted in turnips, put the whole into the ground, and then treat the plants
as if originally sown in the open ground. In this way the fruit may be had
much earlier than usual.

Forcing. —To force cucumbers, begin ten weeks before the fruit is
needed. The Short Prickly, Long Green, and White Spines, are preferred
for this purpose. The seeds should be twe or three years old, and should
be sown in pots placed over a warm bed. Apply tepid water, and take care
that no cold air enters the frame. When the second leaves are expanded,
transplant into larger pots; place three together. When one month old,
earry to the fruiting-bed. The latter is made on a dry spot, with fresh
dung, well turned and forked, and four feet high. As soon as the bed is
settled, and in regular fermentation, add six inches of fine mould, and if it
remains mellow, it will answer; but if fire-fanged, or caked, more will be
necessary. The mould should be hilled to within eight inches of the glass
frame, and set three plants from the pots in it, transplanting with the ball
of earth; these are enough for one frame. Use warm water to them, and
darken until they are well rooted. The temperature should be from seventy
to eighty degrees, — the steam being allowed to escape as it rises. As the
heat lessens, add fresh dung outside, cutting away the old. Form a bank,
two feet wide and one foot high, against the back of the frame. Give the
plants air and water in the morning. As the roots enlarge, add fresh,
good mould.

Enemies. — The striped bug eats the young foliage; the flea-beetle, a
small, black insect, destroys the small plants, as also does the squash-bug,
a large insect, with brown upper wings and orange belly ; the black worm
cuts down the young plants, and can only be caught in the morning, as it
retires into the earth during the heat of the day. Several species of aphis
annoy the plants. ‘The large insects must be caught in nets or with the
hand; soot, tobacco-water, solution of whale-oil soap, infusion of werin-
wood, Mayweed, pennyroyal, and slacked lime, are all used with advantage.
Some allow hens to run among the vines.

DanveLion. — This is a hardy plant, growing spontaneously in this and

other countries, and much used as a wholesome table-green. <a

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 195

Culture, gc. —It may be propagated either by seeds or roots, in a
moderately well-prepared soil. The flowers may be cut off as fast as they
appear, to prevent the dispersion of the seed and weakening the plant.

Ecce Pianr.— There are two varieties of this plant, the white-fruited
and the purple, the latter kind being preferable.

Culture, §-c.— It may be raised by sowing the seed on a slight het-bed,
the beginning of April, or in March; and towards the latter part of May
they should be planted in a rich, warm piece of ground, at the distance of two
and a half feet asunder, every way, for the purple, or two feet for the white
kind; and if kept clean, and a little earth be drawn up to their stems, when
about a foot high, they will produce plenty of fruit. Or, the seed may be
sown about the end of April, on a warm border, and planted out finally the
beginning of June.

Enpive. — This is a salad plant, of which there are two sorts, the Curled
and the Plain, the last being the best for use. It is the same as Chicory.

Culture, gc. —The soil most favorable to the endive is a light, fresh,
moist loam. It is sown in drills a foot apart; when the plants come up,
they must be thinned to a foot apart in the row. Hoe the ground fre-
quently, and keep it clean between the plants. Before using as a salad, it
must be bleached, by carefully gathering the leaves with the hands into a
conical form, and tying them with matting or soft string. This must be
done in dry weather, when the plants are of good size, and they will be fit
for use after they have remained ithe tied state about a fortnight, and
will keep till spring. The time of sowing for the spring is as soon as the
weather will permit; for the winter, about the last of July or first of
August. '

Garuic. — This vegetable has been in use fur a Jong time. It has a very
pungent odor. ‘The varieties cultivated are the large and the small.

Culture, §c.—It is grown by planting the small bulbs, or root, in drills
two inches deep, six inches apart, and four inches from plant to plant, early
in the spring, on light, rich ground. It should be well hoed. The bulbs
attain their full size about the first of August, when the leaves wilt.

Hop.— Perhaps our account of this plant should have been included in
the preceding chapter. Under all the circumstances, however, we cun-

_ cluded to give it its present place, believing such an arrangement the best

one, on the whole.

The hop is a perennial-rooted plant, with an annual twining stem. The
female blossom is the part used, and the female plant .is the only one cul-
tivated. The male (a) plant and the female (4) are both represented in
Fig. 99.

- Culture, Gc. — The soils most favorable are clays, and strong, deep loans,

196 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

with a dry and friable subsoil. In preparing it, the weeds should be wholly
destroyed, and the ground well pulverized. The ridges should also be made

level, and dung liberally applied. The most effectual preparation is trench-
ing, either by the plough or by manual labor. The mode of planting is
generally in rows, making the hills six feet distant from each other, this
distance giving a free circulation of air, and admitting the sun’s rays unob-
structed. The planting season is in February or March; but if bedded
plants, or such as have been nursed for one summer in a garden, are used,
then, by planting in autumn, some produce may be had in the succeeding
year. When root sets are used, as on the occasion of grubbing up an old
plantation, October is the right time. The plants or cuttings are procured
from the old stools, and each should have two joints or eyes; from the one
which is placed in the ground springs the root, and from the other the stock
or bind. ‘They should be made from the most healthy and strong binds,
each being cut to the length of five or six inches. Those to be nursed are
planted in rows a foot apart, and six inches asunder, in a garden, and the
others at once where they are to remain.

After-culture. — The after-culture of hops, besides the usual processes of
hoeing, weeding, stirring, and manuring, includes earthing up, staking,
and winter dressing. Hoeing may be performed with a horse implement ;
starring, though usually done with a three-pronged fork, may be done with
a plough; manuring is either with well-rotted stable dung, or compost,
either in spring or fall. Some spread the manure between the rows, others
lay it on the hills. It would seem, however, that the best time was the

spring, and then it should be turned under by the plough. Earthing up is
performed the first May after planting, whether that operation be performed —

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 197

in spring or autumn. In dressing the hop plants, the operations of the first
year are confined to twisting and removing the haulm, to which some add
earthing up in autumn. The yearly operation of staking or setting the
poles commences towards the end of April, or at whatever period, earlier
or later, the shoots may have risen two or three inches. Two or three
stakes are usually put toa hill. Tying the shoots or vines to the poles is the
last operation in the after or summer culture.

Taking the Crop.— Taking the crop isa most important operation. The
time for picking varies ; light soils and dry situations are earliest ; even in a
yard of a few acres, situated on a side-hill, the highest ground is often ready
for picking some days before the lower ; and sometimes, from the poverty
of the land, the middle, or, it may be, the lower part, is ripe first. In
commencing picking, too much care cannot be taken in gathering those first
that are ripe, and not picking those that are Jargest, as is often the case.
The time of picking may be known by their change of color, from a deep-
green to a light-yellow tinge. If they have seeds, the hop ought to be
gathered as soon as the seed turns brown; but the certain indication of
picking-time, to those who are familiar with the plant, is when the lupulin,
or small globules of the bright yellow resin, are completely formed in the
head of the hop, at the bottom of the leaves, and the leaves are readily
rubbed from the stem. The lupulin, or flowers of the hop, as it is commonly
called, is the only valuable part, and if gathered too early, before it becomes
perfect turpentine, it soon dissipates and loses its fine aromatic flavor, and
all its medicinal qualities. Hence, gathering hops too soon is a total loss,
and instead of imparting a palatable, pleasant flavor, and giving its fine
tonic balsam to ale, they are unquestionably an injury, and ought not to be
used ; and if gathered too late, the lupulin drops out, and the hop is of no
value ; but the experienced cultivator takes the medium, — commences when
the hop is first ripe, has everything prepared—his hands, kilns, baskets,
bagging, &c. Five or six days ought to finish the process of picking and
euring, if his yards ripen about the same time. The hop should be picked
clean, without leaves or stems, and, if possible, without dew on them ; nor
pressed too close, nor put in too large quantities, before going on the kiln,
or they will heat.

Drying. — With regard to drying, no rule can be given for the thickness
they ought to be spread on the kiln, or even for the length of time necessary
todry them. A skilful operator is the only safety in this process. Care
ought to be taken that the kiln draws well, as much depends on its draft ;
the steam should not be allowed to fall back on the hops, and must pass off
freely. Preparatory to putting the hops on the kiln, it must have a fire put
in, made perfectly dry, and fumigated by burning brimstone, to take away

7 *

198 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

all the bad smell ; and when perfectly sweet, a layer of hops put on, say
eight or ten inches deep, and this may be increased or lessened as the oper-
ator finds the draft. The time used in drying will also depend on the
quantity of hops on the kiln, and on the draft, — say from eight to sixteen
nours ; but they must not be removed from the kiln until the core or stem
is crisp and well dried ; they must then be put upon a floor, and occasiunally
turned, until the leaf becomes tough, when they are ready for bagging.
The fuel used for drying must be of the sweetest kind, and perfectly charred ;
and the best is beech, birch, hickory, or maple. Pine may not be used
under any circumstances, nor any brimstone, only as before directed. When
the fire is once put into a kiln of hops, 1t must never be permitted to slacken
or go out, until they are dried. The fire should never be so hot as to burn,
or leave the least taint of fire on them.

Assorting. — Hops should be carefully divided into three equal parts or
parcels, —the first, second, and last pickings. If six days are consumed in
picking, let the hops of the first two days, the third and fourth days, and
the last two days, be kept separate, bagged and marked ; each parcel will,
by this method, be more valuable to the brewers, and enhance the price
of those that should thus be brought to market, if skilfully picked and
cured.

The scorching or burning the hops on the kiln is a serious injury, and
should be carefully guarded against during the process of drying.

Horse-rapisu. — This plant is cultivated for its roots principally.

Culture, §c. — It thrives on any soil tolerably good, but prefers a deep,
mouldy, rich and moist soil. If marure be necessary, vegetable substances
are the best for that purpose. It is propagated from seed and sets, the
latter obtained by cutting the main root and offsets into lengths of two
inches ; the tops or crowns of the roots form the best, those taken from the
centre never becoming so soon fit for use, or of so fine a growth. Each set
should have at least two eyes, for without one they refuse to vegetate. The
vest time for planting is in October, for dry soils, and in February, for moist
ones. The sets must be inserted in rows eighteen inches apart each way.
The ground should be trenched between two and three feet deep, the cut-
tings being placed along the bottom of the trench, and the mould turned
from the next one over them, or inserted to a similar depth. The shoots
make their appearance in May or June. The only culture required is to
noe and rake the ground, and destroy the weeds. In taking up the roots,
it should be done regularly, instead of a root here and there, as is often
practised.

Leex.—This is a vegetable which, for certain purposes, is used asa

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 199

substitute for the onion. The variety most esteemed is the London Tall,
or Musselburg Flag.

Culture, §-c.— The culture of the leek is similar to that of the onion,
only it requires more water. Put the rows eight inches asunder, and thin
the plants to three inches apart in the row. Hoe frequently between the
plants until the middle of July, then take them up, and cut their roots off to
an inch long. Make trenches for them like those of celery, only not more
than half as deep, and half as wide apart. Manure the trenches with rotten
dung, or other rich manure. Put in the plants as you do celery plants, and
about five inches asunder. As they grow, earth them up by degrees, as you
do celery ; and at last you will have leeks eighteen inches long, under
ground, and as thick as your wrist. ‘Three leeks planted out for seed will
ripen in August, and be enough for the next year.

Lettruce.— This is a hardy annual plant, comprising many varieties,
of which the following are among the best: Brown Dutch, Large Indian,
White Silesia, Green Hammersmith, Early Cabbage or White Butter, Royal
Cape, Grand Admiral, Magnum Bonum Cos, Brighton Cos, Ice Cos, White
Cos, and Green Cos. The cabbage lettuces are round-leaved, growing in a
compact, full head, of squat form, close to the ground. All the Cos lettuces,
in their general growth, are more or less upright, of an oblong shape.
Both kinds have white, close, firm heads, when in perfection ; the varieties
reach maturity from June till September.

Culture, gc. — All sorts grow freely on any rich, mellow soil, where the
subsoil is dry. Raise it on beds set apart for it, keeping the varieties sep-
arate; but, to multiply the supplies throughout summer, portions may be
sown, thinly intermixed with principal crops of leeks, onions, carrots, and
spinach, which will come off before the lettuces are fully grown. Sow
from February to July, for the main summer or autumn crops. For an
early crop, sow in the beginning of February, on a gentle hot-bed ; and
when the plants are one or two inches high, in March or April, prick a
portion either into a warm border, or else let them be shielded with mats,
during nights and bad weather, transplanting to a slender hot-bed, to bring
them more forward. According to their progress in April or May, trans-
plant them into the open garden, from six to twelve inches asunder, to
remain for heading.

Morex. —This is a species of mushroom much esteemed in Europe.

Culture, §c.—It is seldom that morel undergves a regular process of
garden culture, though this may be done by collecting the spawn in June,
and planting in dung-beds or ridges. It grows on wet banks, in the woods,

and in moist pastures, and should be gathered when dry. Used to flavor
gravies, &c.

20 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Fig. 100.

Musnroom. — This plant grows spontaneously and very luxuriantly, and
numbers several varieties, some of which, however, are very poisonous.

Culture.—It is now largely cultivated in this country. It needs great
care to raise it artificially, and to do so successfully requires a special
training. It is raisedin hot beds and otherwise. None but those famil-
iar with the different species should collect the article at all, on account
of the great resemblance between the good and the poisonous kinds.
The crown or hat is at first hemispherical, then convex, and at last
flat, fleshy ; about two to five inches broad ; white, or very light brown,
slightly scaly, the scales soft and fibrous ; gills pink, changing to brown-
ish black ; the flesh, when divided, changes generally to a reddish hue.

Musrarp. — There are two species of this plant in cultivation, the Black
(a) and the White (b). They are annuals.

Culture, §c.—In cultivating white mustard, for spring and summer
consumption, sow once a week or fortnight, in dry, warm situations. in
February and March, and, afterwards, in any other compartment. In sum-

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 201

mer, sow in shady borders, if it be hot, sunny weather. Generally, sow in
shallow, flat drills, from three to six inches apart; scatter the seed thick

Fig. 102.

and regular, and cover in thinly with the earth, about a quarter of an inch.
To furnish gatherings in winter or early in spring, sow in frames or under
hand-glasses, and when the weather is frosty, or very cold, in hot-beds.
This species is cultivated chiefly as a small salad, and is used like cresses,
while in the seed; when these are newly expanded, they are mild and
tender, but when advanced into the rough leaves, they eat rank and disa-
greeable. In many parts, the seed of the white species is preferred for
mustard, giving a whiter and milder flour than the black. It is also used
medicinally, cleansing the stomach and bowels, and bracing the system at
the same time.

The black mustard is chiefly cultivated in fields for the mill. It must be
sown in April, in drills, from six to twelve inches asunder, or broadcast,
and rake or harrow in the seed. When the plants are two or three inches
in the growth, hoe and thin them moderately where too thick, and clear
them from weeds. They will soon run up in stalks, and in August return
a crop of seed ripe for gathering.

Onion. — The best varieties are the New England White, Large Red,
Yellow or Silver-skinned, Yellow Dutch, Strasburgh or Flanders, and Madeira,
the Yellow or Silver-skinned and Large Red being the best for a general
crop, and the New England White for the table and pickling.

Culture, §c.—For a general crop, the ground should be well prepared
by digging in some of the oldest and strongest manure that can be got.
Plant in April or May, sowing the seed moderately thick, ix drills one inch

202 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

deep and twelve inches apart. When the plants are up strong, they should
be hued, and three times during the early part of their growth. Those beds
that are to stand for ripening should be thinned out, while young, to two or
three inches apart. When the greenness is gone out of the tops of onions, it
is time to take them up, for from this time the fibrous roots decay. After
being pulled, they should be dried, and then removed to a place of shelter.

The small onions may be planted in the following spring. Even an onion
which is partly rotten will produce good bulbs, if the seed-stems be taken off
as soon as they appear. Most of the varieties are propagated by seed. The
potato onion, however, does not produce seeds, but increases by the root.
One onion, slightly covered, will produce six or seven in a clump, partly
under ground. ‘The bulbs are generally planted in the spring, twelve to
eighteen inches apart, though they are apt to yield better when planted in
autumn, as they will survive the cold, if covered with dung, litter, &c.

Oxra.— This plant is not much in general use in this country. ‘There
are two varieties, the large and the small podded or capsuled.

Culture, §c.—It may be sown, with certainty of success, at the time of
planting Indian corn. Draw drills about an inch deep, and four feet asunder,
into which drop the seeds at the distance of eight inches from one another,
or rather drop two or three in each place, lest one should not grow, and
cover them an inch deep. As they advance in growth, earth them up like
peas, and they will bear well.

Parsnip. — The choice sorts of this vegetable are the Guernsey or Com-
mon, and the Sugar or Hollow-Crowned, the latter being the best garden
variety.

Culture, §-c. — Like the carrot and beet, the parsnip requires a light, rich,
dry soil, and the sooner the ground is prepared in the spring, and the seed
put in, the better the roots will be, as a long season is necessary to their
perfection. Sow the seed in drills, the same as carrots, and left, in thinning,
eight inches apart in the rows. They must be kept clean by frequent hoe-
ings, and in the autumn are fit for use; but as they improve in quality by
being exposed to the frost, and will remain in the earth without injury, those
intended for spring use are left in their beds, and are usually found in a fine
state in the spring months. The seed of this plant vegetates with some
difficulty, and in a light, dry soil, should have the earth pressed upon them
with a roller immediately after sowing.

Pea. — The varieties of this useful and nutritious plant most commonly
cultivated for market and garden use are the following: Extra Early, Early
May, Early Frame, Early Charlton, Bishop’s Early Dwarf, Blue Marrow,
Woodford Marrow, Sugar Pea, Knight’s Dwarf Marrow, New Mammoth,
Early Washington, Early Double Blossom, and Early Warwick.

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 2023

Culture, gc. — Sow as early in the year as the ground can be worked,
In double rows, four feet apart, covering about three inches. Manure

» Fig. 103.

=)
ey

——

moderately, and dig it in well. As the early crops appear, draw the soil
over them; and as they advance from half an inch to three inches high, and
when the weather is dry, draw the earth to the stems, and continue to hoe
and earth up, as it will assist the peas to bear plentifully. When they are
six or eight inches high, place a row of sticks or brush, about five feet long,
in the middle of the double rows, and a few smaller ones on the outside of
each row. Sow again from the middle to the end of April, for use in July
and August.

The crop is readily collected by a short scythe and horse-rake, or by hand.
It should be done while the haulm is of a yellowish green, or the peas
scatter. The haulm in this state is a very valuable rough fodder, if care-
fully housed. The grain is threshed out, and forms excellent provender for
stock and poultry.

Enemies. —The pea is subject to but few diseases. The pea-bug punc-
tures the pod when very young, and deposits an egg. Very few crops
entirely escape them, except such as are sowed about the middle of June.
It is therefore best to sow a part about that time, for seed, or to keep a
sufficient quantity over one year.

Preprer.— The varieties grown for pickling and kitchen use are the
Sweet or Bell, the Cayenne, and the Tomato or Fiat.

Culture, d-c. —Sow a small portion of seed, thinly, half an inch deep, on
a hot-bed or in a pot, in April, and transplant in June, on good soil, twelve
inches apart, and eighteen inches from row to row. As they grow, hoe

204 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

frequently, earthing up the stems. When sown in the open ground, the
time is the same ; let the soil be light and warm, and transplant when three
to four inches high.

Pumpxin. — The best varieties of pumpkin are the Cashdw, Family, Con
necticut Field, White Bell and Valparaiso.

Culture, §c.—The best time for sowing is about the middle of May.
It will grow in any dry and well-worked soil. It has been usual with
farmers to grow their pumpkins in the corn-field ; but whether this is a good
practice or not, is somewhat doubtful. A good crop of pumpkins must
necessarily take from the sustenance which would otherwise go to nourish
the corn. When planted with Indian corn, they may be put between the
hill of corn of every fourth row and every fourth hill, upon a shovel full of
rich manure, two seeds in a hill. When the plant is grown by itself, let
the hills be eight or nine feet apart; two or three plants in a hill are
sufficient, though it will be more advisable to put in more seed, to provide
against accidents, and the surplus plants can be withdrawn. ‘To preserve
the crop pure, the seed should not be taken from plants growing near
squashes,

RapisH. — There are two species, the long and the round; and of these
there are several varieties, which are named below.

Culture, §-c.— For the early crops, use the Long Scarlet Short Top; the
Long Salmon, similar to the preceding, but of lighter color; the Scarlet
Turnip Rooted, and White Turnip Rooted. Frequent sowings are necessary,
as the foregoing soon become pithy and shoot to seed ; in flavor they differ
but little. At the same time the early kinds are sown, make a sowing of
the Yellow Turnip and Summer White, which are fine kinds, withstand the
heat, and are firm and crisp even in hot weather; frequent sowings of these,
as well as the White Spanish, or Black Spanish, as most liked, should be
made during the summer months. The two latter kinds, sown in autumn.
keep well in winter, if secured from frost.

Forcing. —In forcing radishes, a moderate hot-bed is necessary, the
earth about eight inches deep, on the surface of which the seed is to be sown
as soon as the violent heat has abated, and an additional half-inch sifted over
it. Keep the temperature at about sixty-five degrees, admit the air except in
the evening, and, when the earth is dry, give a light watering. The seed-
lings are generally up in a week, and in six weeks may be drawn.

Ruvgars. — The principal varieties are Buck’s New Scarlet, of a deep
red ; Tobolsk, very early ; Goliah and Admiral, large size; Elfort, Wilmot’s
Early Red, Myatt’s Victoria, and Australian.

Culture, dc. — The seeds should be sown in April, in a border, and
scattered thinly in drills, two inches deep, and a foot asunder, slightly

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 205

eovered with soil When the plants appear, they should be thinned out to
about six inches from each other, and afterwards toa foot. A light, dry
soil, is excellent.

As soon as the leaves are decayed, the seedling plants should be taken up
with care, and planted out in rows, two feet apart, and the same distance
between the plants. A shady spot is preferable, as the stems will be finer
and better when not too much exposed to the sun. Give an annual top-
dressing of well-rotted manure.

A simple method of forwarding rhubarb is by turning over the plants, as
they stand in the open ground, empty barrels or boxes, which may be sur-
rounded by coarse litter or stable manure.

Rape (edible-rooted,) is a white, carrot-shaped root, about the size of a
man’s finger, having a more delicate flavor than the turnip, like which it
is cooked. It is not peeled, but scraped—the skin being remarkably thin.

Culture, &c. —It is propagated by seed, which may be sown in April
andJune. It will growin any soil that is poor and light, more especially
if it be sandy. It grows to a larger size in rich, manured earth, but de-
teriorates in sweetness and flavor. The same mode of cultivation and
treatment applied to the turnip will answer for this root; but in dry
weather the beds must be regularly watered until the plants have deve-
loped their leaves,

Sausiry. — This plant is also called Vegetable Oyster; its flavor, when
properly cooked, being very similar to that of the oyster.

Culture, &c.—Deep and humid soils are the most favorable. After dig-
ging and smoothing, the plot intended for it should be formed into four-

206 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

feet beds, and the seeds be sown and covered in rows, eight or ten inches
apart. ‘This should be done as soon as the frosts are over in the spring, for
the earlier the sowing, the finer will be the crop. Two hoeings, and
frequent watering when the weather is very dry and hot, are necessary.
The plants attain their full size in autumn.

Scorzonera.— A plant mostly grown in Europe, for its roots, to use in
soups, &c.

Culture, §c.—It is raised very much as is salsify. If the seeds be
sown in April, in a good deep soil, the roots will attain perfection in
autumn, and continue good through winter. They last three or four years,
but it is better to raise a few from seed every year.

Sra-Kate. —It grows wild in Great Britain, but is extensively raised in
gardens.

Culture, §-c.— It will succeed well in any dry and deep soil. .A bed
may be composed for it of one half drift sand, one third rich loam, and
one third small gravel, road-stuff, or coal-ashes. If the soil be wet, drain
it; and if poor, manure it well. Propagate by seed; and if the weather in
June and July be very hot, water plentifully. It flowers about June, and
the seed ripens in August. The signal for cutting is when the plants are
three inches above the surface.

Suattor.—A plant often used asa substitute for the onion, having a
stronger taste, but not leaving so strong an odor as that plant.

Culture, §c.— Each offset of the root will increase, if planted in a
similar manner to its parent. The planting may be performed in October
or November, or in the spring — March or April. The first is the best
season, if the soil lies dry, as the bulbs become finer; but otherwise, the
spring is preferable, for excessive moisture destroys the sets. Plant six
inches asunder each way, in beds four feet wide, in drills.

Sxirret. — The root is composed of fleshy tubers, joined together at the
crown or head, and used in cookery.

Culture, §c.— It grows freely in a light, moderately good soil. It is
propagated both from seed and offsets of established roots. The former
mode is preferred. Sow about the middle or last of April, in small drills,
eight inches apart. When the plants are one or two inches high, thin
them to five or six inches asunder. They will continue to grow until the
end of autumn, and may be used all along. Those left to reach maturity
will be good for winter use, also for spring, till the stems run. When
grown by offsets, take only the young outward slips.

Spinacu. — There are two varieties, the Round-leaved or Smooth-seeded,
and the Prickly-seeded. The New Zealand is also a species highly
regarded.

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 207

Culture, §c.—'The Smooth-seeded is better for spring and summer use,
and the latter for autumn sowing. Sow broadcast or in drills ; when drilled,
it is easier kept clean, and more readily gathered for use. The drills should
be twelve inches apart, the plants four inches apart in the rows. If sown
thicker, thin out, when young, as wanted, leaving plants at proper distances.
For spring and early summer use, sow early in spring, and occasionally
afterward ; for the early autumn supply, sow at close of summer, and for
the main winter crops, about middle of autumn. Before very cold weather
give a light covering of straw, cedar-brush, or anything that will lay lightly
and partially protect it; otherwise, the frost will injure.

Squasu.— The kinds most suitable for cultivation are the Early Bush,
Vegetable Marrow, Lima, Cocoa-nut or Acorn, and Green Striped.

Culture, Gc. — Dig deeply patches of earth, at the distance of four or
five feet each way, mixing in well-decomposed manure, in liberal quantities.
In each patch or mound of earth plant about half a dozen seeds, and when
the plants are well grown, remove all but two or three of the best. Sow
about the middle of April ; or, fur early crop, start them in pots or hot-beds.

Tomato.— The kinds most usually grown are the Large Smooth Red,
Large Red, and Cherry-shaped. ‘The yellow tomato is not much raised.

Culture, §c.— The best soil is one that is light, rich, with a dry sub-
soil. Sow the seed in April, scattering it thin, and not burying more than
half an inch below the surface. “The plants soon appear, and when of two
or three weeks’ growth, they must be thinned to three inches apart, and
those removed, if wanted, pricked at the same distances, in a similar bed
to that from which they may be removed. On the approach of frost, pull
up some of the plants, root and all, which are well laden with fruit, and
hang them up in a dry, airy apartment. In this manner it may be continued
in perfection after the natural season.

It is recommended to cover the earth around each clump with straw or
litter, which prevents rapid evaporation in hot weather, and protects from
heavy rains. Some brush-wood stuck around the plants, to support them, is
also useful.

Turniw.— The principal sorts are the Early Yellow Dutch, Early Red
top Dutch, White Norfolk Globe, Yellow Aberdeen, and Early White Dutch
together with t'.e valuable Ruta-baga, or Swedish Turnip.

Culture, §c.— The soil should be thoroughly ploughed, harrowed, and
rolled ; the weeds should be well raked up, and everything done to bring it
into a state of good tilth. As drilling or sowing the seed in rows is most
generally practised, the soil should be thrown into ridges by a plough, the
ridges having a sharp top, and being at the distance of from twenty to thirty
inches from top to top. After the ridges are formed, the manure is hauled

208 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

on the ground, thrown out at convenient intervals, and immediately placed in
the furrows. A section with the manure deposited in the furrows is shown
in Fig.105 a. As fast as the manure is distributed in the furrows, it should be
covered, which is effected by splitting the ridges with either a double ora
single mould-board plough, forming a new ridge on which the seed is to be
sown, directly over the manure. A section of the new ridges is represented
(>). The rolling and seed-sowing (c) succeeds this operation ; then the young
plants, with the earth hoed away from them (d), are seen; after this, the
plants further advanced, covering the soil with their leaves, and enjoying the
dung with their roots, (e) ; and, finally, the plants full-grown.

The Swedish turnip, or ruta-baga, has a decided advantage over all other
varieties of turnip as cattle food, being the most nutritive, and retaining its
soundness and richness much the longest. When given to cattle, it should
be cut, by means of the vegetable cutter. A grass lea is best for this
variety. If an old sod, plough it in autumn or early in spring, and manure
and completely pulverize before planting. If a young clover lea, the
manure may be spread, ploughed under, the ground harrowed, and the seed
immediately put in. Sow at the rate of one to two pounds tne acre. In
the after-culture, the objects aimed at are to keep the crop clean, to thin the
plants to eight or ten inches, and to keep the surface of the soil mellow.
The turnip should be the last crop gathered, because it grows the longest,
is least liable to suffer from frost, and is liable to be injured by fermenting,
when collected in heaps for winter. If buried in pits, the roots should be
raised above the surface of the ground, and laid up to terminate in a ridge,

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 209
so .hat when they are covered with straw and earth, the heated or impure

air of the pit will concentrate at the ridge on the top, where it should be
suffered to pass off freely through holes made for the purpose.

SSS

nO)

Enemies. — 'The turnip-flea is a great scourge. To avoid it, it is recom-
mended, first, that the germination of the seed be hastened by all natural
means, as applying some portion of stimulating manure, sowing when a
proper degree of moisture exists, and in close connection with the manure,
to secure at once the benefit of it to the roots, if possible, making most of
the season, when favorable. Second. That a liberal quantity of seed be
sown, in drilis, which will hasten the vegetation after it has come up.
Third. That the land be well cleared, the weeds wholly eradicated, and the
soil well supplied with manure suited to its character. Fourth. Select
good seed, and test it before sowing, to see how many germinate, and how
svon.

ri _

==
CSC

Uses. —. The root is an excellent food for every species of farm-stock, and
is very extensively used for fattening beef, mutton, and pork. When milch
cows are fed with ruta-baga, it Should have a little salt sprinkled upon it.

18 * re)

‘
*

210 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Il. HERBS, &c.

Antse. — This is a half-hardy annual, used for garnishing or seasoning
and much esteemed for that purpose.

Culture, §c. —Sow during April, in pots buried in a hot-bed ; remove to
a warm, light border, in May; thin the plants to six inches apart. The seed
is ripe in August and September.

Baum. — The balm is a hardy plant, with square stems, rising two feet
high or more, with large leaves growing by pairs at each joint.

Culture, §c.—It is propagated by parting the roots, preserving two or
three buds to each piece, or by slips, either in autumn or spring. Plant in
any bed of common earth, from eight inches to a foot apart, watering, if the
weather be dry. Gather when the plant is coming into flower; and when
the leaves are entirely free from moisture, dry them, and, when cool, press
into packages.

Basit. —The Sweet-scented and the Dwarf Bush are the two varieties.

Culture, §c. — A rich, light soil is the best. Sow the seed, in a gentle
hot-bed, early in April; to be thinned, and those removed pricked out
at the close of this latter month in a similar situation, to be finally removed
in the course of May or June, when the weather is settled, in open ground.
When thinned, the seedlings must be kept at three inches apart, and those
removed pricked out at a similar distance. Water at every removal, and,
during the growth, hoe, and keep clear from weeds. Gather seed from the
earliest raised plants.

Caraway. — A biennial plant, with a taper root, stems rising from a foot

and a half to two feet, spreading branches, and finely-cut deep-green leaves.

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 211

Culture, gc. — A clayey loam is the best soil, which should be well
ploughed ; sow in March, directly after the plough, harrowing well. In
ten weeks after, hoe, and repeat hoeing two or three times before cutting,
which may be done in July; after which, thresh it upon a cloth.

Corranper. — A small-rooted annual, with branchy stems.

Culture, ¢c.— Sow on a light, rich soil, in the fall, with fresh seeds
twenty pounds to an acre. Thin the plants to six or eight inches apart
every way, and in the spring stir the soil with a hoe. The seed ripens in
August, when it must be carefully cut and gathered. A few strokes of the
flail will get the seeds out clean.

CamomiLe.— This is a well-known creeping plant, cultivated for its
flowers.

Culture, §-c.— The double-flowered variety is the most commonly grown,
but the single possesses more of the virtue of the plant, according to its
weight. It only requires a poor soil, planted in rows a foot apart, and
hoed between. It will produce abundance of flowers annually, from June to
September.

Cuervit.— The Parsley-leaved and Fern-leaved are raised by the Eu-
repeans, but in this country the plant is not much attended to.

Culture, 4c. — Sow the seed in early autumn, as soon as it is ripe ; Sow
in drills eight-inches apart, or broadcast; thin the plants to eight inches
asunder, and keep free from weeds.

Ditt. — It is cultivated for its leaves and blossoms, which are used for
pickling, and in soups and sautes.

212 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Culture, §-c. — Soil rather dry ; sow as soon as the seed ripens, in drills
a foot apart; thin to about ten inches asunder, after three or four weeks
growth; keep clear of weeds; and, for seed, cut in September.

Frenne. — Resembles the dill, but is larger; grown for its stalks and
leaves.

Culture, gc. — Three or four plants are sufficient for any garden. The
variety called the Finochio may be grown in rows, on light, rich soil, and
earthed up to the height of five or six inches, which blanches the stalks in
ten days or a fortnight. Water in very dry weather.

Foxciove. — A medicinal plant, comprising two varieties, the Large and
the Small.

Culture, g-c. — When raised in gardens, it is easily propagated by seed.
It prefers a gravelly, sandy, or chalky soil. Every part of it is poisonous.

Horenounp. — This herb has a white, hoary appearance, and a very
bitter, though not unpleasantly aromatic, flavor.

Culture, §c. — Any common soil is adapted to this plant, and it is readily
increased by divisions of the roots, or by seeds.

Hyssop. — There are three varieties, the White, Red, and Blue — dis-
tinguished by the color of the flowers. The last is the most common.

Culture, §-c.— A dry soil is the most appropriate one. It is propagated
by seed and slips of the branches and young shoots, as well as by offsets
May be sown from early spring until June ; rooted offsets may be planted in
March, April, August, and September; cuttings of the branches in April
and May, and slips of young shoots in June or July. Sow broadcast, or in
drills, six inches apart, and not deeper than an inch.

_ Lavenper. — A dwarf, odorous shrub, of three or four years’ duration,

Sulture, g-c. — The soil should be a poor, dry, limy gravel ; the seeds being

: THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 213

sown in a garden in spring, may be transplanted in September ur March
following, in rows two feet apart. The second season they will yield
flowers, and a full crop the fourth, after which the plants will continue pro-
ductive for years. The spikes are gathered in June, and dried in the shade

Liquorice. — The liquorice is a deep-rooting plant, with stems four or
five feet high.

Fig. 110.

Culture, §c.— The soil should be a deep, sandy loain, trenched two o1
three feet deep, and manured; the plants consist of the side roots, having
eyes or buds. Plant in the fall or spring, in rows three feet apart, and from
eighteen inches to two feet in the row; hoe, stir, and weed, and carry off
the stems every autumn, after they are completely withered.

Marsoram. — The Sweet Marjoram is a biennial plant, and long in use
as a seasoning for soups, and for other culinary purposes.

Culture, Gc.—-'This species, being somewhat tender, is commonly sown
on a slight hot-bed towards the end of March, or on a warm border about
the middle of April; in the former case, transplanting it into rows one foot
apart, and the plants six inches distant in the row ; and in the latter case,
thinning them out, without transplanting.

Mint. — The Common or Spear Mint is a creeping stemmed plant, the
young leaves of which are much used in salads, soups, &c.

Culture, §c. — Propagate by dividing the roots before they begin to grow
in the spring, and bury in shallow drills, or slip off the young shoots when
they are three or four inches long, and plant in beds a few inches apart.
To produce tender stalks and leaves, water liberally. To dry, cut the
ttalks when just coming intoflower. ;

214 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Parstey.— A well-known biennial, with a large, sweet tap-root.
There are two varieties, the Plain-leaved and the Curled-leaved, the
latter the best

Fig. 111.

Culture, §c.— Sow at monthly intervals, from February until middle of
June, in drills nine inches apart; when of tolerable growth, thin to nine
inches asunder, and keep clear of weeds. For seed, cut in July or August ;
dry, and beat out.

Penny-Royau. — There are two kinds, the Trailing and the Upright.

Culture, &c.—It is grown by dividing the roots in the spring. The
best soil is one that is strong and moist. It is of very easy cultivation.

PeppermMint.— A well-known creeping-stemmed plant, growing spon-
taneously.

Culture, §c.—It may be propagated by dividing the roots early in the
spring, and planting in a soft, rich soil. The stalks are gathered when in
full flower.

PurstANne. — There are two sorts, the Green and the Golden, the latter
being used mostly as a garnish, and the former for a salad; also for pot-
herbs and pickles.

Culture, Gc. — Where a constant supply is required, the first sowing
should be made on heat in February, and the others monthly, on a warm
border, till August. The shoots are gathered when from two to five inches
high, and well furnished with leaves.

Rosemary. — The Green, Golden-striped, and Silver-striped, are the vari-
eties cultivated, the first-named being the most used.

Culi.re, §c.— The best soil is a poor, light, limy one. Propagate py

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 215

4 cuttings and rooted slips, during any of the spring months, or by layers in
the summer. Sow in March or April, in drills one inch deep, and six
inches apart. ‘The slips and cuttings must be five or seven inches long, and
planted in rows eight or ten inches apart. Water liberally at the time of
planting, and occasionally afterwards.
Rur. — An evergreen shrub, making a beautiful garnish for table dishes.
Culture, §c.— It thrives best in a poor, clayey soil, and is propagated by
slips, cuttings, and seeds, in the spring, the seed being sown in drills one
‘nch deep, and one foot apart. The slips or cuttings may be planted on a
poor, shady border, and watered occasionally.
Sarrron. — This is also called the Autumn Crocus, and is a bulbous-

Fig. 112,

rooted perennial, which has been long cultivated for its medical and culinary
uses.

Culture, gc. — Plant the bulbs on a prepared soil, not poor nor a very
stiff clay. Plant in July, in rows six inches apart across the ridges, and
three inches distant in the rows. The flowers are gathered in September,
the stigmas picked out, together with a portion of the style; these are dried
between layers of paper, under the pressure of a thick board, to form into
vakes.

Sace.— The varieties are the Common Green, Wormwood, Variegated
Green, Variegated Red, Painted or Parti-colored, Spanish or Lavender-
leaved, and Red.

Culture, §c.—It is propagated by seeds or cuttings, and the plantation
ought to be renewed every two or three years; otherwise, the winter may
destroy it.

216 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Savory.— There is the Winter or Perenneal Suvory, and the Summer
or Annual Savory, the latter being preferred, on account of its more agree-
able fragrance.

Culture, §c.— The Winter savory is propagated by seed, cuttings, or
divisions, — most frequently by the latter mode. The Summer is sown in
drills, one foot apart, in the open garden, in March or April.

Tansy.— The Curled or Double Tansy is the kind chiefly grown for
culinary use.

Culture, §c. — The kind of soil is not very material. It is raised by
rooted slips, or divisions of its roots, planted in spring and in autumn, in
rows a foot apart each way. A little manure will increase the productive-
ness, but is not wholly necessary.

Tuyme. — The Common and Lemon Thyme are the two varieties.

Culture, §c.—'The Common is readily increased by seeds, cuttings, or
divisions, and the plants should be renewed, by one or other of these modes,
every year, in the spring. ‘The Lemon is a trailing evergreen, used for the
same purposes as the preceding.

KITCHEN GARDEN CALENDAR.

January. — Artichoke: secure from frost, if not yet done. Asparagus:
plant on a hot-bed twice in the month, to keep up a succession. Carrot.
sow on a slight hot-bed. Cauliflower: sow in a box, and place in a fore-
ing-house, if the autumn sowing failed. Celery: protect during severe
weather. Cucumbers: prepare a seed-bed for sowing next month, renew
the linings of the fruiting-beds, and keep them made up above the surface
of the soil in the frame. French Beans: sow in pots, for forcing. Mint
and other Herbs: take up and plant in pots or boxes, and place in a forcing-
house. Potatoes: plant on a slight hot-bed. Radishes: sow on a slight
hot-bed, or in the same frame with potatoes. Rhubarb: take up old roots,
and plant in boxes or pots, and place them in a forcing or mushroom house.

Fresruary.— Beans: plant in boxes for turning out next month; also
sow in the open ground, if the season be open. Cabbage: sow on a warm
border. Carrots: sow on a warm border. Cauiliflowers: prick out those
sown in boxes last month on a slight hot-bed, — sow on a sheltered border.
Celery: sow in boxes, and place in a forcing-house, for a first crop. Cu-
cumbers: plant from the seed-bed, and afterwards keep the heat by night
70° to 75°, and by day, 75° to 85°. French Beans: earth up former sow-
ings, and sow again. Lettuce: sow on a warm border. Mushrooms: make
beds and spawn at 80°. Onions: sow in boxes, and place in a forcing:
., house, for planting out in April. Peas: sow in boxes, and in the open

2 jhe

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. PA

ground. Potatoes :~plant on a slight hot-bed and on a warm border = Rad-
ishes: sow on a warm border. Sea-Kale: cover up. Spinach: sow. Tur-
nips: sow.

Marcu. — Artichokes: make new plantations. Asparagus: make new
beds, — top-dress the latter end of the month. Basil: sow. Beans: plant
twice in the month. Beets: sow. Cabbages: fill up vacancies in the
autumn plantations. Capsicums, or Peppers: sow seed. Carrots: sow the
main crop. Herbs: make new beds. Horse-Radish: make new planta-
tions. Jerusalem Artichokes: plant early in the month. Leek: sow.
Lettuce: prick out on a slight hot-bed those sown last month in boxes.
Mushrooms: make beds for summer use. Onions: sow the main crop.
Parsley: sow. Parsnips: sow the main ciop. Peas: sow twice,— earth
upearly crops. Potatoes: plant main crop. Radishes: sow twice. Salsify:
sow. Savoys: sow beginning and end. Scorzonera: sow. Shallots and

Garlic: plant the beginning of the month. Spinach: sow. Turnips: sow

an a sheltered border.

Aprit. — Beans: plant twice, and earth up the early croup. Borecole:
tow. Broccoli: sow the winter varieties. Brussels Sprouts: sow begin-
ning of the month. Cabbages: prick out the February sowing. Cardoons:
sow for early crop. Cauliflowers: plant out those wintered in frames.
Celery: prick out the early sown on a slight hot-bed. Cucumbers: sow to
plant out on ridges. French Beans: sow the beginning of the month.
Lettuce: fill up the autumn plantations. Onions: transplant the autumn
sowing, and also those sown in boxes in February. Peas: sow twice in the
month, earth up, and stick early crops. Radishes: sow twice in the month.
Spinach: sow first and third week. Twurnips: thin, and sow the latter end.
Vegetable Marrow: sow the middle of the month.

May.— Basil: plant ona rich sheltered border. Beans: top the early
crops,— plant twice in the month. Beets: thin to fifteen inches apart.
Borecole: prick out of the seed-bed. Broccoli: prick out those sown last
month, and make another sowing of the winter kinds; also Cape and Gran-
ges, the last week. Cabhages: plant out the February sowing. Cauliflowers.

‘earth up, and water with liquid manure,—take off the hand-glasses. Cu-

cumbers ; prepare ridges for out-door crops. French Beans: make sowings
the first and last weeks. Leeks: transplant. Let/uce: transplant early
sowings,— sow twice in the month. Onions: thin them to nine inches
apart. Peas: make two sowings. Potatoes: earth up the early crops.
Radishes : make two sowings. Spinach: sow the middle of the month, —
thin former sowings. Scarlet Runner: sow beginning and middle of the
month. Turnips: make a sowing, if not done the end of last month.
June, — Asparagus: discontinue cutting. Beans: put in the ‘ast crop,
19

218 FARMER S HAND-BOCK.

—top and earth up former crops. Broccoli: sow €ape and Granges
Cabbage: sow seed tor Coleworts. Capsicums: plant out on a warm
border. Carrots: thin to two inches apart. Celery: transplant into
trenches for an early crop. Cucwmbers: plant under hand-glasses
Endive : sow for an early crop. French Beans: make a sowing the middle
of the month. Leeks: transplant. Lettuce: transplant. Peas: complete
the sowing of the marrow varieties. Potatoes: earth up. Radishes: sow
as in last month. Savoys: transplant for an early crop. Scarlet Runners :
make the last sowing. Spinach: sow twice. Tomatoes: turn out against
walls. Vegetable Marrow: plant under hand-glasses.

Juty.— Borecole: transplant. Broccoli: transplant. Brussels Sprouts :
transplant. Cauliflower : transplant from the April sowing. Cabbage: sow
in the last week for a crop to come in in May. Celery: transplant into
trenches. Endive: make a second sowing. French Beans: earth up, and
make the last sowing the latter end of the month. Lettuce: make a sowing
the first and last week. Peas: make two last sowings of early sorts. Rad-
ashes: sow on a cool border.

Aveust.— American Cress: sow to stand the winter. Borecole and
Broccoli: transplant the main crop. Cabbage: sow for main spring crop,
—transplant for Coleworts. Carrots: sow to stand the winter. Caule-
flowers : transplant to come in during autumn, —sow for the main spring
crop. Celery: transplant into trenches, and earth up for blanching. En-
dive: make the last sowing, and transplant from former sowings. Lettuce:
sow for standing through the winter, — transplant from former sowings.
Onions : sow for standing through the winter. Radishes: sow the winter
varieties. Savoys: transplant the main crop. Scarlet Runners: earth up
and stick. Spinach: sow the main winter crop. Turnips: sow the winter
crop.

September. —Cabbages: prick out from last month’s sowing. Celery:
earth up for blanching. Chervil: sow for winter use. Curled Cress: sow
for winter use. Endive: transplant, and tie up for blanching. Mushrooms :
make beds for winter use. Onions: pull up and house them when dry.
Parsley : cut down a portion of the spring sowing. Potatoes: take up the
early sorts. Purslane: sow for winter use. Shallots and Garlic: these
should now be taken up. Dig up vacant ground.

Ocroser. — Artichokes: tie up the leaves for producing the chard. As-
paragus: cut down and winter dress Beets: dig up and lay in sand. Cab-
bages : plant out for the main crop. Cardoons: tie up the leaves for blanch-
ing. Carrots: take up the main crop. Cauliflower: prick out under
hand-glasses, and into frames. Cucumbers: make beds, and sow seed for
early crops. Lettuce: plant out for the main spring crop. Parsnips: take

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 219

ap and preserve in sand. Potatoes: take up the main crops. Tomatoes :
gather the unripe fruit, and lay in a forcing-house. Dig and trench ground
during dry weather.

Novemper. — Artichokes : cover the roots with litter. Beans: sow first
crop. Cauliflowers: protect those which have formed heads from the frost.
Celery: take every favorable opportunity to earth it up. Cucumbers: ridge
out the plants in the fruiting-beds. Endive: preserve from frost. Horse-
radish: dig up for winter use. Jerusalem Artichokes: take up for winter
use. Peas: sow foran early crop. Salsify: dig up for winter use. Scor-
zonera: dig up for winter use. Sea-Kale: clear away the decayed stems
and Jeaves. Preserve culinary vegetables from frost.

December. — Asparagus: take up roots for forcing. Celery: protect
during severe frosts. Cucumbers : attend to the linings of the beds. French
Beans: plant in pots for forcing. Mushrooms: keep a moist and steady
temperature inthe house. Radishes: sow on a hot-bed for early use. Rhu-
barb: take up roots, and pot for forcing. Sea-Kale: take up roots carefully
for forcing. ‘Small Salad: keep a succession, by sowing cnce a week,
Prepare materials for hot-beds.

CHAPTER YV.

THE DAIRY.

DAIRY IMPLEMENTS — MANAGEMENT — MILK — BUTTER-MAKING — CHEESE-MAK-
ING; INCLUDING ALL THE MOST CELEBRATED AND ESTEEMED MODES.

IMPLEMENTS.

General Remarks. —The construction of dairy-houses is, naturally, the
first subject to be presented, in a chapter like this. The reason why it is
here omitted is, in order that it may be included in the chapter on Rurab
ARCHITECTURE, thus enabling us to give consistency and completeness to
the plan of this volume. We begin, therefore, with remarks on some of the
implements or utensils employed in dairy operations. These comprise
milk-pails, shallow pans or cooling dishes for holding, sieves for straining
the milk when taken from the cow, dishes for skimming the cream, churns
for the making of butter, besides scales, prints, and boards, for weighing,
measuring, and ornamenting it; also ladders, vats, tubs, curd-breakers, and
presses, for the manufacture of cheese, together witn vessels large enough
to hold the whey or butter-milk. Almost all of these, except the churn and
press, are so generally similar, and so familiar to all, as to require but little
description. ‘The material of which most of these are formed is wood,
though many dishes are made of earthen-ware, lead, tin, freestone and
slate, and not unfrequently of brass. ;

It being generally conceded that the dairy husbandry of England is the
most perfect in the world, we shal] incorporate as much information relative
to its management in that country, in the present chapter, as will be com-
patible with the limits assigned to this department.

Presses. —'Vhe cheese-presses act upon the curd by pressure, and are there
usually made of stone, of different weights, proportioned to the size of the
cheese. ‘They are most generally raised by a block and tackle, but are fre-
quently made upon the principles of the lever, and there are various con-
structions, placed in frames of wood, also of iron. A very common machine,
of an extremely simple form, used im many dairies which produce such
small cheeses as not to require great pressure, is that of a movable beam,
fixed by a pivot in an upright post, and having hooked on at the other end a

(220)

THE DAIRY. 22s

weight which presses in this manner on the cheese-vats underneath (Fig.
113). There is also the Patent Self-Acting Press, which is much used. It

Fig. 113.

is light, but strong, and is substantially a table on which to turn the cheese ;
no forcing screws, nor lifting heavy weights, but the cheese creates a con-

Fig. 114.

stant and regular pressure, of twelve times its own weight, whether large

or small; and, if a greater presstre is needed, one pound laid upon the
19 *

229 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

cheese or table adds twelve pounds increased pressure, andsoon. The
cheese is nct removed from the press until the pressing is completed.

Churns. — The churns are closed vessels, into which the cream, or the
whole milk, being put, a piston, or a wheel in the form of a fan, is quickly
and regularly moved, either up and down, or by turning, according to its
form, so as to separate the oily particles of which the butter is composed.
They are generally made of the best oak, and of various sizes. Much im-
provement has been made, within a few years, in the construction of churns,
figures of three of which we annex.

The Thermometer churn (Fig.115)is constructed so that the cream or milk
is readily brought to the desired temperature without mixing water or other
substances, and the temperature certainly and definitely determined, which
proves invaluable in making butter. There is a double bottom, made in the
form of a semi-circle, of two sheets of zinc, or other metal, placed one above
the other, the cream to rest upon the uppermost ; between the two sheets
forming the bottom is a space or chamber, into which may be introduced
cold or warm water, as may be required, to increase or diminish the temper-
ature of the cream or milk. The water is easily applied by means of a
common tin tunnel, through an aperture or hole in the side of the churn
Another improvement is a thermometer permanently placed in one end of
the churn, secure from injury, marked at sixty-two degrees, and which is
always visible, so that the operator may know when the cream or milk is
brought to the proper temperature. If too warm, the mercury will rise

}
‘
rd

—— a

THE DAIRY. 223

above the mark, and cold water should be applied in the chamber described ;
if oo cold, the mercury will fall below the mark, when warm water must
be used in the same manner. The cream or milk should be stirred or agi-
tated, by turning the crank, while the water is being introduced, to give an

equal temperature throughout. When the thermometer indicates that the
cream or milk is of the proper temperature, the water may be drawn out
through the tube placed for the purpose, when the churning should be
performed by giving the crank about forty revolutions to the minute.
Kendall’s Cylindrical Churn (Fig.116) is simple in its construction, and

Fig. 117.

combines all the advantages of other cylindrical churns, with this improve-
ment, that the revolving dasher can be taken out in a moment, whenever

294 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

it is required to be cleansed. There are five sizes, from two to twenty
gallons.

The Gault Churn is an article much in use, and in some respects a supe-
rior machine. Fig.117 represents the top lifted up to receive the cream or
lischarge the butter. T//inghast’s is also an almost incomparable churn.

Cleanliness in Dairying. —'The form of these utensils is, however, a mat-
ter of secondary importance, compared with their being kept extremely
clean, which is the chief requisite in all the operations of the dairy; and,
therefore, those which can be most readily cleaned are the best to be em-
ployed, whatever may be their shape. ‘Those who superintend dairy opera-
tions should be clean and careful, and the floor of the dairy should be kept
perfectly dry ; for water thrown down in hot weather will rise again in
steam, and affect the milk with its humidity.

MILK.

Management of Milk. — When the milk has been drawn from the cow, it
should be carried as gently as possible to the dairy, and after being there
strained through the sieve, it must then be deposited in shallow pans or
coolers, not exceeding three or four inches in depth, where it is left to col-
lect the cream, which rises to the surface within a few hours, according to
the temperature of the air. ‘Those who are particularly nice, either in the
consumption of the raw cream, or for the making of butter, skim it, perhaps,
within twelve hours ; but it is more generally left full twenty-four, or even
thirty-six hours, according to the state of the season, when intended for
butter, and is then not unfrequently skimmed again.

The chief component parts of milk are those which, when separated, are
known as forming butter and cheese, the residue of which is called whey.
These parts are known, however, to vary in percentage, according to the
quality of the milk; and, to determine this point, what is called a dactom-
eter isin use. It consists of glass tubes placed upright in a wood frame ;
these tubes are divided and subdivided, by marks, into equal spaces ; they are
filled to equal height, each with the milk of a particular cow, when, after
remaining a proper time, the quantity of cream in each is readily seen
through the glass, and the exact difference determined by the marks ; this,
however, does not show whether the caseous matter (of which cheese is
formed) or the butyraceous matter (or oily substance producing cream)
predominates. The following observations may be assumed as a summary
of its management: First —Of the milk that is drawn from any cow at a
time, that which cues off at the first is always thinner and of a poorer
quality than that which comes afterwards, the richness continually increas-

THE DAIRY. 225

ing, to the last drop drawn at that time. Second—lIf milk be put in a dish
and allowed to stand till it throws up cream, that portion of cream which
rises first to the surface is richer in quality and greater in quantity than
what rises in a second equal portion of time; the cream that rises in the
second interval of time is greater in quantity and richer in quality than
that which rises in a third equal space of time ; and that of the third than
the fourth, and so on; the cream that rises decreasing in quantity, and
declining continually in quality, so long as any rises to the surface.
Third — Thick milk always throws up a smaller proportion of the cream
it actually contains to the surface than milk which is thinner; but that
cream is of a richer quality. If water be added to that thick milk, it will
also afford a considerably greater quantity of cream than it would have
done if allowed to remain pure ; but its quality is at the same time greatly
debased. Fourth— Milk which is put into a bucket, or other proper vessel,
and carried to any considerable distance, so as to be much agitated, and in
part cold, before it is put into the milk-pans to settle for cream, never throws
up so much nor so rich cream as if the same milk had been put into the
pans directly after it was milked. F%/th—lIf it be intended to make butter
of a very superior quality, it will be, in such case, advisable to separate the
milk that is first drawn from that which comes last, and the quality will be
improved in proportion to the smallness of the last-drawn milk that is
obtained. ‘The first-skimmed cream should also be used, as it is always
richer than that which rises last.

BUTTER.

General Remarks. — This is formed either by cream alone, or with the
whole milk, unskimmed ; but although such different modes of manufacture
might seem to warrant very different results, yet they have very little per-
ceptible effect on the quantity or quality, though the profit on the produce
of the dairy may be affected, in large towns, by the greater demand for
skim-milk or butter-milk. There is also another kind, which is much infe-
rior, and made from the cream of whey, after the cheese has been taken
from the milk ; but the process of making is nearly the same.

Cream Butter. — When butter is to be made from cream alone, the milk
is, in winter, usually skimmed as often as four, and in summer two or three
times, or until it will afford no more cream ; and this should be first sepa-
rated from the edges of the pan, to which it firmly adheres, by means of an
ivory or silver-bladed knife, run closely around it. The cream should then
be carefully drawn to one side and lifted off with a skimming-dish, which
is generally pierced with small holes ; an act which requires some dexterity,

BY BP

226 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

both to avoid the leaving of any cream behind, and to prevent any portion
of the milk being mixed with it. ‘Some persons, indeed, have leaden cool-
ers, with a plug in the bottom, which allows the milk to escape to a large
vessel underneath, while it leaves the cream at top ; but the former practice
is most usual.

The length of time which the milk should stand before it is skimmed
must depend both upon the temperature of the air at the time, and the views
of the dairy operator. In moderately warm weather, if very fine butter be
intended, it should not be suffered to remain more than six or eight hours ;
for ordinary good butter, it may be safely allowed to stand full twelve hours,
and during cold weather, much longer. The cream is then put into a deep
vessel, in which it is frequently stirred, every day, with a wooden spoon, in
order to prevent coagulation, until sufficient be collected to form a churning.
No vessel can be better adapted for this purpose than one in the under part
of which, close to the bottom, there is a faucet and peg for draining off,
from time to time, any thin, serous part of the milk that may chance to be
there generated ; for should this be allowed to remain, it acts upon the
cream in a powerful manner, and greatly diminishes the richness and quality
of the butter. The inside of the vessel should be covered with a bit of close,
fine silver-gauze, to keep back the cream, while the whey is allowed to pass.
Many persons imagine that no butter can be of good quality except that
which is made from fresh cream; the fact, however, being, that the forma-
tion of butter takes place only after the cream has attained a certain degree
of acidity, and no butter of even tolerable quality can be obtained from
cream that is not more than one day old. The length of time which the
cream should be kept before it acquires that degree of acidity which is
requisite for the best butter, depends so much upon the weather, that no
fixed rule can be laid down. In fact, so little nicety is observed, in this
respect, by practical farmers, even those who have a high reputation for
making good butter, that few of them ever think of observing any precise
rule with regard to the different portions of their cream, seeing they in gen-
eral make into butter all they have collected since the former churning ;
the time which should intervene between one churning and another being
usually determined by local or accidental circumstances. If the cream be
very carefully kept, and no serous matter be allowed to lodge about it, a
very great latitude may be safely admitted in this respect. It is, indeed,
certain, that cream which has been kept three or four days in summer is in
excellent condition for making into butter, and that from three days to seven
may be found in general to be the best time for keeping cream before churn-
ing. The cream from every milking should, however, be kept apart until it
ts become sour, and not be mixed up with sweet cream, — at least, not until

THE DAIRY. 227

the moment of churning, — for the mixture occasions fermentation, which,
though partly prevented by the stirring, is liable to render the cream putrid.
When, however, the herbage is coarse, or the cows are fed on roots, or
artificial grasses, the sooner the cream is churned, the better will be the
butter. Sometimes the milk is allowed to stand until the cream becomes
clotted, or, as it is termed, ‘‘ carved,’’ to a proper degree of acidity, which
generally takes place, in warm weather, within a day or two; and, in winter,
it is placed near the fire, in order to forward that process.

Clotted Cream. — The mode of procuring the genuine clotted or ‘‘ clouted
eream,”’ which is said to produce one fourth more cream than by the common
way, is as follows: The milk, while warm from the cow, is strained into
either large, shallow brass pans, well tinned, or earthen ones, holding from’
two to five gallons, in which should bea small quantity of cold water, which
prevents burning, and causes the cream to be more completely separated and
thrown to the top. The morning meal of milk stands till about the middle
of the day; the evening meal, until the next morning. ‘The pans are now
steadily carried to and placed over a clear, slow fire, which, if of charcoal,
or over a stove, the cream is not so apt to get an earthy or smoky taste as
when the milk is scalded over a turf or wood fire. ‘The milk must not boil,
as that would injure the cream. ‘The test of its being sufficiently scalded
is a very nice point ; the earthen pan, having its bottom much smaller than
the top, allows this point to be more easily ascertained, because, when the
milk is sufficiently scalded, the pan throws up the form of its bottom on the
surface of the cream. The brass pan, if almost as big at the bottom as at
the top, gives no criterion to judge by, but the appearance and texture of
the cream at the surface, the wrinkles upon which become smaller, and the
texture somewhat leathery. In summer, it must be observed, the process
of scalding ought to be quicker than in winter, as, in very hot weather, if
the milk should be kept over too slow a fire, it would be apt to run or
curdle. This process being finished, the pans are carefully returned to the
dairy, and, should it be the summer season, they are placed in the coolest
situation ; if on stone floors, the better ; but should it be the winter season,
the heat should rather be retained, by putting a slight covering over the
pans, as cooling too suddenly causes the cream to be thin, and consequently
yields less butter, the mode of making which is this: The cream should,
in hot weather, be made into butter the next day ; but in winter it is thought
better to let the cream remain one day longer on the milk. The cream,
being collected from the pans, is put into wooden bowls, which should be
first rinsed with scalding, then with cold, water. It is now briskly stirred
round one way, with a nicely-cleaned hand, which must also have been
washed in hot and then in cold water; for these alternate warm and cold

228 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

ablutions of bowl and hand are not only for the sake of cleanliness, but te
prevent the butter from sticking to either. The cream, being thus agitated,
quickly assumes the consistence of butter ; the milky part now readily sepa-
rates, and being poured off, the butter is washed and pressed in several cold
waters ; a little salt is added to season it, and then it is well beaten ona
wooden trencher until the milky and watery parts are separated, when it is
finally formed into prints for the market. ;

In the common way of making butter from cream, the dairies churn the
whole quantity at once; but in many dairies, celebrated for the quality of
their butter, only the first skimmings are used in making the best kind, the
mode pursued being as follows: ‘The milk, after standing twenty-four
hours in large shallow coolers, lined with lead, is skimmed; the skimmed
milk is then drawn off from the leads into other vessels of increased depth,
but unlined, in which it is left from twelve to twenty-four hours, during
which time it is skimmed two or three times; this is called ‘* doubling ; ’’ it
is then ‘‘ trebled,’’ or put into tubs, or still deeper vessels, where it is occa-
sionally skimmed, so long as any appearance of cream is found to form upon
the surface ; after which, it is given to the pigs. ‘he butter which is made
from the after-skimmings is paler and inferior to that made from the cream
cast up within the first rising; it is therefore generally churned apart.

Whole-Milk Butter. —If butter be made from the whole milk, the process,
in the best dairies, in which the consumption of butter-milk is considerable,
is to place the milk, when drawn from the cow, in coolers on the floor of a
clean, cool, well-aired milk-house, from twelve to twenty-four hours, till it
has cooled to the temperature of the milk-house, and the cream has risen to
the surface ; these coolers are next emptied, while the milk is yet free from
acidity, into a clean, well-scalded vat, of size to contain the whole milking,
or two milkings, if both are sufficiently cooled, where it remains till churned.
If another milking, or meal of milk, be ready before that which has begun
to become sour, that second meal may be put into the same vat; but if the
first has soured, or is approaching to acidity, before the second quantity has
completely cooled, any further admixture would lead to fermentation, and
injure the milk. It is necessary that the whole milk become sour before it
is churned, but the whole of it must become so of its own accord, and by no
means forced into acidity by any mixture of sour milk with that which is
sweet. ‘The utmost care should, however, be taken, not to allow the coagu-
lum, or curd, of the milk in the stand-vat, to be broken till the milk is about
to be churned. If it be not agitated, or the ‘‘ lapper’’ (as it is termed in
dairy language) broken, till it is turned into the churn, it may stand from a
day to a week without injury.

Churning. —'The operation of churning, whether it be cream or whole

THE DAIRY. 925

milk, is done in the same manner; but the latter, from being so much the
larger quantity, is of course so much more laborious, that in large dairies
churns moved by machinery are frequently used, and which, besides the
advantage of performing the work with great regularity, also produce a
larger quantity of butter. The whole milk, besides, requires more time
than that of cream to complete the process — from two to three hours being
considered necessary to effect it with due deliberation, while that of cream
is generally finished within less than an hour and a half. The operation
should, in warm weather, be very slow, for if it be done too hastily, the
butter will be soft and white; the churn should, therefore, be cooled by
being previously filled with cold water; but in winter it should, on the
contrary, be performed quickly, and the churn should be warmed. ‘The
motion of the churn should be, in each case, regular, and whatever may be
the degree of velocity, the stroke of the fan, or piston, ought always to be the
same, until the butter is formed, or said ‘‘ to come.’? The air which is
generated in the churn should also be occasionally allowed to escape, or
it will create froth, which impedes the process.

The temperature of the milk-house should be kept, as nearly as possible, at
about 55°, or at least between 50° to 60°; and cream, when churned alone,
should not be higher, for if kept at a high temperature in the process of
churning, it will be found inferior in appearance, taste, and quality; but
milk and cream, when churned together, it is generally thought, must be
equalled to about 70° to 75°, before the latter can be separated from the
milk, which is cousequently the common practice. This is done by one
person pouring gradually a small quantity of warm water into it, while
another is churning; for if the work be carried on while too cold, the milk
is said to rise in the churn, air-bubbles are thrown up with a rattling noise,
and the milk becomes pale; whereas, if conducted at a proper heat, it does
not sweil, but is easily worked, and remains at the proper straw-color. A
thermometer, it may therefore be imagined, should always be hung up in
every dairy; yet, strange to say, it is an instrument seldom seen in any of
them ; the only scale which the dairy-maid knows is at her fingers’ ends, and
although she invariably trusts to her hand for trying the heat, it is yet sur-
prising with what correctness she usually judges. Practice, it is said,
makes perfect; and it is astonishing with what accuracy many operations,
which are supposed by theorists to demand the aid of science, are performed,
through experience, by the merest child in science. Notwithstanding, how-
ever, the accuracy which experience may produce, it is not to be compared
with that denoted by scientific experiment, nor can it be acquired without
great loss of time, which might otherwise be avoided.

The whole milk, as well as the cream when churned separately, must
20 ;

930 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

become sour before it is churned; but this must be effected merely by the
state of the atmosphere, or by being kept exposed to the fire, in order to
bring on fermentation. It is therefore kept in a large vat, or tub, until the
milk is turned into curd, or lapper, and if that remains undisturbed, the
churning may be deferred for some days longer; the warm water must not,
therefore, be added until the curd is broken. In some dairies, the milk is
put into a pan, or vat, and well stirred with a wooden spoon, or ladle, two or
three times a day, to prevent the cream from separating from the milk; and
this sort of stirring, or partial churning, is continued till the milk becomes so
thick and clotted that the ladle stands erect in it, after which, it is put into
the churn for an hour or so; cold water is also poured in, to help collect the
kutter and separate the milk from it.

Washing Butter.—In most places, the butter, when taken from the
churn, is washed in repeated waters, in order to extract the milk, until the
water comes out pure. This, however, is a practice not generally com-
mended, for it has been found, by long experience, that butter retains its
sweetness much longer when no water ‘s used in making up. When it is
taken out of the churn, it is well worked with the hand, which presses out
most of the milk; it is then beaten with a cloth, or rather a cloth is
repeatedly pressed down upon it, which absorbs all the remaining milk.
The less it is beaten or worked, however, the better; for the more it iss
kneaded, the more tough and gluey will it become ; and a slight quantity of
salt may be added to flavor it.

Salting. —If the butter be salted for market, after the whole of the milk
has been carefully pressed out, it should be well mixed, by working it in by
the hand, with finely-powdered salt; for if care be not taken in mixing it
equally, the butter acquires different colors— yellow where the salt has
fallen, and white where it has not — which kind is, of course, inferior. The
operation should be performed immediately, for, if deferred, as it commonly
is by country dealers, and farmers who do not churn enough to fill a firkin at
once, the butter loses a portion of its firmness and flavor. Should, however,
there not be enough to fill up a package, the butter should never be put into
the firkin in layers, but the surface should be left every day rough and
broken, so as to unite better with that of the succeeding churning. The
quality may also be in a great measure preserved by giving it a partial
salting, and covering it over with a clean linen cloth, dipped in pickle, and
placed in a cool situation.

The quality of salt should be strong marine, free from the brine of mineral
salt. The quantity may be that of about ten ounces to fourteen pounds of
butter, —rather more or less according to the length of time which the butter
is intended to be preserved ; but it is generally thought that the butter made

THE DAIRY. 231

during the summer months is the fittest for salting, and that the sort which
is made in the latter part of the season, not taking it so well, requires rather
more. Some farmers use saltpetre, in the proportion of half an ounce of salt
with one eighth of saltpetre to the pound of sixteen ounces; and, although
this forms a valuable pickle, if the salt be really good, yet it unquestionab?y
would be much improved if four ounces of raw sugar were to be added to
each pound weight of salt. A compound of one part sugar, one part nitre,
and two parts of the best Spanish salt, beat together into a fine powder, and
mixed thoroughly with the butter, in the proportion of one ounce to the pound,
has been found to keep the butter in every respect sweet and sound, during
two years that it was in cask. It is also said to impart a rich marrowy
flavor that no other butter ever acquires, and tastes but very little of the salt.

When the butter is cured, it is then tramped firmly, with a round wooden
stick, into the firkin, which is filled up to the head, and then covered over
with a little of the purest salt.

CHEESE.

General Remarks. — As butter is made from the oily part of the milk
which rises to the surface in the form of cream, so cheese is composed from
the curd, or coagulated milk, and may be obtained from the caseous part
alone, after the milk has been skimmed. If thus deprived of the cream, this
“«skim-milk’’ cheese is, however, of a poor quality; and if intended to be
good, the whole milk should be used, without any loss of cream ; for, if any
portion of it be abstracted, the cheese will be proportionably less rich, — con-
sequently, less palatable, and of inferior value. ‘The mode of making, too,
though in the main points apparently the same, yet is subject to more
variety of minor details in the practice than that of anything formed of one
material, and thus many different qualities are carried to market, each
bearing some distinct character of its own. That many of those kinds which
are by connoisseurs thought indifferent might, by other management, be
more nearly assimilated to the superior sorts, there can be little doubt;
these peculiarities, however, have, in some cases, attached a certain degree
of value to their flavor, while in others it would seem to be imparted by the
natural grasses grown upon the soil. This applies more especially to some
places. it is well known that where brine-springs most abound the cheese
is always esteemed to be of superior quality.

Rennet. — Different Modes of Preparing and Treating. — Although
cheese may be made from the curd which has been formed by the coagula-
tion of the milk when it turns sour, yet, when thus obtained, it is hard and
ill-flavored ; means have, therefore, been found to curdle it with ‘‘ rennet,”’
which is made from the gastric juice of animals, but more especially from

932 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

that found in the maws or stomachs of sucking calves, that have been fea
entirely upon milk. ‘These maws, or ‘‘vells,’’ as they are sometimes
called, are occasionally preserved, along with the curd contained in them
by salting ; but the more usual mode is to employ the skins of the stomach
bags alone, the method being to put a few handfuls of salt into and around
the stomachs, which are then rolled up and hung near the chimney to dry,
after which, they are put by fer a long time before they are used. If the
skin be good, a bit of it no larger than a half-dime, if put into a tea-cup,
filled with water, with a little salt, during about twelve hours before it is
wanted, will form a stock sufficient for eighteen or twenty gallons of milk;
but their manner of preservation and use is extremely various, and, as the
quality of the cheese depends more upon the application of the rennet than
upon any other part of the manufacture, we shall here state some of the
most approved modes of its preparation.

Most dairy-maids are of the opinion that if the curd, or chyle, were not
removed from the maw of the calf, it would communicate a harsh taste to
the cheese ; and some intelligent operators never use the vells until they are
a year old, for, if newer, the rennet made from them causes the cheeses to
heave, or swell, and to become full of eyes, or holes; and it is well known
that, if too much be used, or if it be unusually strong, it will occasion the
cheese to heave, probably by causing fermentation. It is, therefore, some-
times prepared by adding to every six vells two gallons of brine, and two
lemons, the latter doing away with any unpleasant smell, and giving it an
agreeable flavor. A large quantity should be made at a time, and it should
never be used until it has stood at least two months.

Another mode is, to take the maw of a newly-killed calf, and clean it of
its contents; salt the bag, and put it into an earthen jar for three or four
days, till it form a pickle; then take it from the jar and hang it up to dry,
after which it is to be replaced in the jar, the covering of which should be
pierced with a few small holes to admit of air, and let it remain there
for about twelve months. When wanted for use, a handful each of the
leaves of sweet-briar, dog-rose, and bramble, with three or four handfuls of
salt, are to be boiled together in a gallon of water for a quarter of an hour,
when the liquid is to be strained off and allowed to cool. The maw is then
tobe put into the liquid, together with a lemon stuck around with cloves ;
aud the longer it remains in it, the stronger and better will be the rennet,
half a pint, or less, of the liquor, is sufficient to turn fifty gallons of milk.

Another mode practised is, when the rennet-bag is fit for the purpose,
1et two quarts of soft water be mixed with salt, wherein should be put
almost every sort of spice and aromatic herb that can be procured ; and must
boil gently until the liquor is reduced to three pints, when it should be

THE DAIRY. 233
strained clear from the spices, and poured, in a tepid state, upon the maw,’
and a lemon may be sliced into it. It may remain a day or two, after which
it should be strained again, and put into a bottle, where, if well corked, it
will keep good for twelve months or more, and give the cheese a pleasing
flavor.

Still another practice is this: wheu the maw comes from the butcher, it
is always found to contain a chyly or curd-like matter, which is frequently
salted for present use; but when this chyly matter is taken out, and the
skin cleaned from slime, and every apparent impurity, by wiping or a gentle
washing, the skin is then filled nearly full of salt, and placing a layer of
salt upon the bottom of a mug, the skin is placed flat upon it. The mug is
large enough to hold three skins in a course, each of which should be
covered with salt; and when a sufficient number of skins are thus placed in
the mug, it should be filled up with salt, and put, with a dish or plate over
it, into a cool place, until the approach of cheese-making season in the fol-
lowing year. The skins are then all taken out, laid for the brine to drain
from them, and, being spread upon a table, they are powdered on each side
with fine salt, and are rolled smooth with a paste-roller, which presses in
the salt. After that, a thin splint of wood is stuck across each of them, to
keep them extended while they are hung up to dry. In making the rennet,
a part of the dried maw-skin is, in the evening previously to its being
used, put into half a pint of luke-warm water, to which is added a little salt.
In the morning, this infusion — the skin being first taken out— is put into
the tub of milk; but so great is the difference in the quality of these skins,
that it is difficult to ascertain what quantity will be necessary for the
intended purpose. A piece the size of half a crown, cut from the bottom
of a good skin, will commonly be sufficient for a cheese of sixty pounds’
weight, though ten square inches of skin are often found too little. It is
customary, however, to cut two pieces from each skin, one from the lower,
the other from the upper part; but the bottom end is the stronger.

An improved mode is, to take all the maw-skins provided for the whole
season, pickled and dried as before, put them into an open vessel, and for
each skin pour in three pints of spring water; let them stand twenty-four
hours, then take out the skins and put them into other vessels; add for
each one pint of spring water, and let them stand twenty-four hours, as
before. On taking the skins out the second time, gently stroke them down
with the hand into the infusion, and they are then done with. Mix these
two infusions together, pass the liquor through a fine linen sieve, and ada
to the whole a quantity of salt rather more than is sufficient to saturate the
water, that is, until a portion of salt remains undissolved at the bottom of
the vessel. The next day, a d also the summer thrcugh, the scum, as it

20*

234 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

rises, is to be cleaned off, and fresh salt should be added. Somewhat less
than nalf a pint of this preparation will generally be sufficient for sixty
pounds of cheese ; but, when for use, the whole should be well stirred up.
In some places, however, so far from washing away the chyle contained
in the maw of the calf, pains are taken to increase it as much as possible,
by giving to the animal as much milk as it can be made to swallow, a few
‘hours before it is killed; for, the chyle being formed by the mixture of the
gastric juice with the food, and that gastric juice being the coagulating
power, both are therefore carefully preserved, and are considered as thus
forming a stronger rennet than can be drawn from the bag alone. When
the stomach or bag is taken from the calf’s body, its contents are examined,
and if any straw or other food be found among the curdled milk, such
impurity is removed; but no part of the chyle is suffered to be lost. At
least two handfuls of salt are put into the bag, and upon its outside, after
which it is rolled up in salt, and hung near a fire, where it is always
allowed to hang until it is well dried; and it is understood to be improved
by hanging a year, or longer, before being infused. When rennet is
wanted, the ‘‘ yirning,’’ as it is sometimes called, with its contents, is cut
small, and put into a jar, with a handful or two of salt, and a quantity
either of soft water that has been boiled, and cooled to about 65°, or
of new whey taken off the curd, is put upon the bag in the jar. The
quantity of water, or whey, to infuse the bag, is more or less, accord-
ing to the quality of the yirning. If it is that of a new-dropped calf,
that has not been fed, three pints will be enough; but if he has been fed for
four or five weeks, a couple of quarts may, at least, be put on the bag te
wash; it should, however, be observed that the yirning of a calf four weeks
old yields more rennet than that of one twice that age. After the infusion
has remained in the jar from one to three days, the liquid is drawn off, and
a pint more water, or whey, put on the bag in the jar; and that, after
standing in mash one or two days, is also drawn off, and, with that of the
first infusion, strained, if any impurities appear in the liquor; the whole
being put up in bottles for use as rennet, and the bag being thrown away,
without ever being put into the milk. Some put about a drachm of whiskey
into each quart bottle of the rennet; and it may be either used immediately,
or kept for as many months as may be convenient. A table-spoonful of
rennet thus made will, it is said, coagulate thirty gallons of milk; but its
great superiority over our common practice is, that it will curdle the milk
in five or ten minutes. As to the chyle occasioning a harsh taste to the
cheese, the reverse is the fact. It must, however, be admitted, that, unless
great care be employed in the immediate preparation of rennet thus made

THE DAIRY. 235

the curd is extremely apt to become rancid, and thus impart a certain degree
of rankness to the cheese.

Whole-milk Cheese. —'The mode of making sweet-milk cheese — that is,
cheese made of milk which has not been skimmed — is, to put the ladder
across the cheese-tub, with a large canvas-cloth covering the whole, in order
to prevent the falling of milk upon the floor, or any other matter into the tub,
and above this is placed the sieve through which the milk is to be strained
It should be of the temperature of 90° to 95°; and if below 85°, a portion of
it should be placed in a deep brass pan, which is then immersed in the water,
which is kept hot in the wash-house. By this means the whole is warmed
equally, and it is of the utmost importance that attention be paid to it; for, if
the milk be not warm enough when the rennet is put to it, the curd will be
tender, and the cheese will bulge out at the sides; and, if too hot, it will
cause it to swell or heave, and become spongy, both of which defects are
injurious to its appearance and quality. ‘The rennet is then at once added to
the milk, which is thus coagulated at its natural heat; but many farmers
have not cows enough to form a cheese at every milking, and it must, there-
fore, be then allowed to cool. In doing this, it of course throws up cream,
which is not unfrequently taken off for butter, while the second meal, of
whole milk, is used along with that which has been already skimmed ; but
if the cheese be intended to be of fine quality, the cream must be also added.
This, however, should be at the same time skimmed; for the milk, when
cooled, must be afterwards heated to full 90° in the summer, and to a higher
temperature in cold weather; and, were the cream to be warmed to that
degree, it would be melted, which would cause a considerable portion of the
fatty or butyraceous matter to be lost in the whey. It is, therefore, gen-
erally thought the best practice to gradually bring it to a liquid state by the
admixture of moderately warm milk, before it is poured into the cheese-tubs.
The curd is then broken into small pieces, and the whey being thoroughly
squeezed out, it is salted, wrapped in a cloth, and placed in a chessart, of
such size as may be convenient, or is usually made in the neighborhood ; it is
then pressed with weights proportionate to its size, and turned occasionally,
until it becomes sufficiently firm to be taken out of the mould, and placed
either on a cheese-rack, or on the floor of the cheese-room, where it is occa-
sionally turned, and dry-rubbed with salt, and remains until fit for the market.

Drying. — New cheese requires to be hardened by gradual drying before
it becomes fit for market ; and the cheeses, when taken out of the mould,
are, for this purpose, spread in a single layer on the floor of the cheese-loft,
where they are daily turned by hand, in order to expose each surface alter-
nately to the air. This, on a large dairy-farm, is a slow and laborious
operation, which, as it devolves upon hired help, sometimes prevents them

236 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.

from paying proper attention to that essential duty. A machine has, there
fore, been invented to remedy this inconvenience, called a Swing Frame,
wnich consists of a dozen strong shelves framed together, and having bars
nailed from top to bottom of one side of the back of the shelves, in order to
prevent the cheeses from falling out while in the act of turning. ‘The frame
is suspended on two strong pivots, one of which is let into the wall of the
room, and the other is supported by a strong post. ‘Two catches keep the
frame upright, and prevent it from being turned more than half around.
By first filling the shelf immediately below the axis of the frame, and then
placing the cheeses alternately on the two nearest shelves above and below
that which has been already filled, the preponderance of one side over the
other can never be more than the weight of one cheese ; the whole power,
therefore, required to turn the machine, cannot, in any circumstances, be
greater than this and the friction of the pivots. The cheeses, in the act of

turning, drop upon those shelves, which, in the former position of the frame,,

were above them, and, having been exposed to a current of air for twenty
four houss previously, have become perfectly dry. The benefits of the
machine are, that; hy means of. it, fifty-five cheeses are turned in the same
time which is required for turning two by hand ; that a room thus furnished
will hold treble as many cheeses as when they are laid on the floor ; that
the shade afforded by the shelves, together with the current of air which
passes between them, has the effect, in hot weather, of preventing excessive
sweating, and consequently loss both in weight and quality, as well as
diminishing the necessity of rubbing the cheeses ; and, lastly, the ripening
of the cheeses is hastened, so that, on an average, they are ready for market
five weeks earlier than usual.

The Store-room.— The store-room should be kept temperately warm,
and the shelves on the floor upon which the cheeses are laid should be
strewed with dry moss, or fine hay, as the cheeses, when new, are other-
wise apt to adhere to the boards, and thus acquire an unpleasant appearance.
At a more advanced stage they may be laid upon straw ; but, at first, it
would sink into the surface and deface them. ‘The dried leaves of the
tutsan, or of the yellow star of Bethlehem, and the twigs of the common
birch-tree, are also thought to assist in preventing the depredations of
mites.

Green Whey. — The whey which runs from the curd without pressure
is called ‘‘ green whey,’’ and is received from the cheese-tub into pans
covered with a cloth, under which they are held, until it deposits a sedi
ment, which is added to the curd, after which it is poured into the cistern ;
while that which is pressed by hand from the curd is termed ‘*‘ white
whey,’’ and contains a considerable portion of oily matter ; so much so, that.

THE DAIRY. 237

itis in some cases kept apart, and set for cream. Most generally, however,
the green and white are both scalded together, until they throw up a sub-
stance in appearance between cream and curd, which is skimmed off so long
as it rises, to be churned for whey-buiter, the difference between which and
milk-butter is something in favor of the latter.

MODE OF MAKING THE CELEBRATED CHEESES.

In all our dairies the same main points are admitted to be essential ; but,
although the means of attaining them are nearly alike in similar sections
of country, yet in others they differ materially in the minutiz ; and as upon
these much of the art of cheese-making depends, we give the details of the
modes employed on some of the most celebrated descriptions of cheese,
believing that it will be of material value to every American farmer, to be
acquainted with the modus operandi of producing the finest articles of. dairy
labor.

Cheshire Cheese. —The Cheshire cheese is generally made with two meals
of milk, even in dairies where two cheeses are made in a day; indeed, in
the beginning and end of the season, three, four, and even five or six
meals, are kept for the same cheese. The general custom is, to take about
a pint of cream, when two-meal cheeses are made, from the night’s milk of
twenty cows. In order to make cheese of the best quality, and in the
greatest abundance, it is, however, admitted that the cream should remain
in the milk ; for whether the cream that is once separated from it can by
any means be again so intimately united with it as not to undergo a decom-
position in the after process, admits of a doubt. The more common prac-
tice is, to set the evening’s milk apart till the following morning, when the
cream is skimmed off, and three or four gallons of the milk are poured into
a brass pan, which is immediately placed in the furnace of hot water, and
made scalding hot; then half of the milk thus heated is poured upon the
night’s milk, and the other half is mixed with the cream, which is thus
liquefied, so as, when put into the cheese-tub, to form one uniform fluid.
This is done by the dairy-woman while the others are milking the cows,
and the morning’s milk being then immediately added to that of the even-
ing, the whole mass is at once set together again for cheese.

The rennet and coloring being then put into the tub, the whole is well
stirred together, a wooden cover is put over the tub, and over that is thrown
a linen cloth. The usual time of ‘‘coming,’’ or curdling, is one hour and
a half, during which time it is frequently to be examined. If the cream
rises to the surface before the coming takes place, as it often does, the
whole must be stirred together so as to mix again the milk and the cream ;
and this as often as it rises, until the coagulation commences. If the dairy-

238 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

woman supposes the milk to have been accidentally put together cooler than
she intended, or that its coolness is the cause of its not coming, hot water,
or hot milk, may be poured into it, or hot water in a brass pan may be par-
tially immerged in it. This must, however, be done before it is at all
coagulated, for the forming of the curd must not be tampered with. If it has
been set together too hot, the opposite means, under the same precautions,
may be resorted to; but the more general practice is to suffer the process
to proceed, hot as it is, until the first quantity of whey is taken off, a part
of which, being set to cool, is then returned into the tub to cool the curd.
[f too little appears to have been used, it renders the curd exceedingly bit-
ier, atd therefore an additional quantity may be put in; but this must be
done before the coagulation takes place, for, if added afterwards, it will be.
of little effect, as it cannot be used without disturbing the curd, which can
then only acquire a proper degree of toughness by having some heated
whey poured over it. For coloring, Spanish annatto is the drug usually
employed, little more than the quarter of an ounce being sufficient for a
cheese of sixty pounds. Other coloring matters are, however, used, such as
marigolds boiled in milk, which gives a pleasant flavor, and carrots also
boiled in milk and strained, which imparts a rich color, but a rather strong
taste. The annatto is generally put in by rubbing a piece of it in a bowl
with some warm milk, which is afterwards allowed to stand a little, in
order to drain off the sediment, and is then mixed with the entire quantity.

Within an hour and a half, as already mentioned, if all goes on well, the
coagulation will be formed —a point which is determined by gently press-
ing the surface of the milk with the back of the hand; but in this test
experience is the only guide, for the firmness of the curd, if the milk be set
hot together, will be much greater than that from milk which has been set
cold together. Ifthe curd he firm, the usual practice is to take a common
case-knife, and make incisions across it to the full length of .the blade, at
the distance of about one inch, and again crosswise in the same manner, the
incisions intersecting each other at right angles. The cheese-maker and
two assistants then proceed to break the curd, by repeatedly putting theiz
hands down into the tub, and breaking every part of it as small as possible,
this part of the business being continued until the whole is uniformly broken
small. It generally takes up about forty minutes, and the curd is ‘hen
left, covered over with a cloth, for about half an hour, to subside.

The bottom of the tub is now set rather a-tilt, the curd is collected to the
upper side of it, and a board is introduced, of a semi-circular form, to fit
loosely one half of the tub’s bottom. ‘This board is placed on the curd, and
a sixty-pounds’ weight upon it, to press out the whey, which, draining to the
lower side of the tilted tub, is ladled out into brass pans. Such parts of the

THE DAIRY. 259

curd as are pressed from under the board are cut off with a knife, placed
under the weighted board, and again pressed ; the operation being repeated
again and again, until the whey is entirely drawn from the curd. The
whole mass of curd is then turned upside down, and put on the other side
of the tub, to be pressed as before. ‘The board and weight being removed,
the curd is afterwards cut into pieces of about eight or nine inches square,
piled upon each other, and pressed both with the weight and hand ; these
several operations being repeatedly performed, as long as any whey appears
to remain in it.

The next thing is to cut the curd into three nearly equal portions, one of
which is taken into a brass pan, and is there by two persons broken ex-
tremely fine, a large handful of salt being added, and well mixed with it.
That portion of curd being sufficiently broken, is put into a cheese-vat,
which is placed to receive it, on a cheese-ladder over the cheese-tub, the
vat being furnished with a coarse cheese-cloth. ‘The second and third por-
tions of the curd are treated in the same manner, and emptied into the vat,
except that into the middle portion eight, nine, or ten times the quantity
of salt is usually put. By some, however, each portion is salted alike, and
with no more than three large handfuls to each. The breaking takes up
more or less time, as the cheese was set together hotter or colder; half an
hour is, perhaps, the longest.

The curd, when put into the cheese-vat in its broken state, is heaped
above the vat in a conical form; to prevent it from crumbling down, the
four corners of the cheese-cloth are turned up over it, and three persons,
placing their hands against the conical part, gently, but forcibly, press it
together, constantly shifting their hands when any portion of the curd is
starting from the mass, and folding down the cloth upon it. So soon as the
eurd adheres together so as to admit of it, a small square board, with a
corner of the cloth under it, is put on the top with a sixty-pounds’ weight,
or a lever, such as that which has been described, is pressed upon it. Sev-
eral iron skewers are at the same time stuck in the cone, as well as through
holes in the side of the vat, from which they are occasionally drawn out and
fixed in other spots, until not a drop of whey is discharged. The weight
and skewers are then removed, and the corners of the cloth are held up by
hands, or by a wooden hoop, while the curd is broken as small as possible,
half way to the bottom of the vat, and the same operation of pressing and
skewering is repeated. The four corners of the cloth are then taken up,
while the vat is drawn away, and rinsed in warm whey; a clean cloth is
then put over the upper part of the curd, and it is returned inverted into the
vat; it is then broken half way through in the same manner as before,
which several operations occupy from three to four hours.

240 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

When no more whey can be extracted by these means from the cheese, it
is again turned inthe vat, and rinsed as before in warm whey. The cloth
now made use of is finer and larger than the former, and is so laid that on
one side it shall be level with the edge of the vat, and on the other wrap
over the whole surface of the cheese ; the edges being put within the vat,
thus perfectly enclosing the entire mass. In this stage of the business the
cheese is still higher than the edge of the vat; and, to preserve it in due
form, recourse is had to a binder, about three inches broad, either as a hoop
or as a cheese-fillet, which is a strong, broad, coarse sort of tape, which is
put around the cheese, on the outside of the cloth, and the lower edge of
the binder pressed down within the vat, so low as that the upper edge of it
may be level with the surface. ‘The cheese is then carried to the press, and
a strong, smooth board being placed over it, the press is gently let down
upon it, the usual power of which is about fourteen or nfteen hundred
veicht. In most dairies there are two presses, and in many three or four,
of diferent weights, the cheese being by some put first under the heaviest,
and by others under the lightest. :

As soon as the cheese is put into the press, it is immediately well skew-
ered, the skewers being of streng wire, eighteen or twenty inches long,
sharp at the points and broad at the other end, the vat and binder having
holes, seldom more than an inch asunder, to receive them. As the press
always stands near the wall, only one side of the cheese can be skewered at
the same time, and it must therefore be turned half way round, whenever
that is necessary ; but this occasions no inconvenience, as the skewers must
be frequently shifted, and many more holes are made than skewers to fill
them. In half an hour from the time when the cheese is first put into the
press, it is taken out again, and turned, in the vat, into another clean cloth ;
after which it is returned to the vat, but is by some persons previously pnt
naked into warm whey, where it stands an hour or more, for the purpose of
hardening its coat. At six o’clock in the evening, the cheese is again
turned in the vat into another clean cloth, and some dairy-women prick its
upper surface all over an inch or two deep, with a view of preventing
blisters. These, however, if they occur, can be remedied by opening thein
with a penknife and pouring hot water into the incision; then press down
the outer rind, put on a little salt, and place a piece of slate with a half-
pound weight upon it. At six o'clock in the next morning, it is again
turned in the vat, with a clean cloth as before, and the skewers are laid
aside; it is also turned two or three times more, both morning and evening,
at the last of which finer cloths are used than those at first, in order that as
little irypression as possible may be made on its coat.

After the cheese has remained about forty-eight hours under the press, it

THE DAIRY. 241

is taxen out, fine cloth being used merely as a lining to the vat, without
covering the upper part of the cheese, which is then placed nearly mid-deep
in a salting-tub, its upper surface being covered all over with salt. It
stands there generally about three days, is turned daily, and at each turning
well salted, the cloth being changed twice in the time. It is then taken out
of the vat, in lieu of which a wooden girth, or hoop, is made use of, equal]
in breadth to the thickness nearly of the cheese, and in this it is placed on
the salting-bench, where it stands about eight days, being well salted all
over, and turned each day. ‘The cheese is then washed in lukewarm water,
and, after being wiped, is placed on the drying-bench, where it remains
about a week; it is then again washed and dried as before, and after it has
stood about two hours, it is smeared «ll over with about two ounces of
sweet whey-butter, and then placed in the warmest part of the cheese-room.
On the cheese coming into the salting-house, it is, in some dairies, taken
out of the vat, and after its sides are well rubbed with salt, is returned into
the vat with a clean fresh cloth under it; the top being covered with salt,
it is placed on the salting-benches, turned and salted twice a day, and the
cloth changed every second day. On the salting-benches it is continued
seven or eight days, when it is taken out of the vat, and with a wooden
hoop, or cheese-fillet, around it, is put into the salting-tub, and managed as
before described.

While it is remaining in the warmest part-of the cheese-room, it is,
during the first seven days, rubbed every day all over, and generally smeared
with sweet butter ; after which it should for some time be turned daily, and
rubbed three times a week in summer, and twice in winter.

The details of this process, however, apply only to cheeses of sixty pounds’
weight, and the quantity of salt used to them is uncertain. The greatest is
about three pounds each; but much of it is wasted, and whether the cheese
acquires much saltness in the salting-house, dairymen themselves are doubt-
ful, though much salt is there expended. Respecting the heating of the
milk, the practice must evidently vary according to the weather. The
sponginess and heaving of the cheese, which are sometimes complained of,
are faults which are to be attributed more to inattention on the part of the
operators than to want of actual skill, — the remedy being careful breaking,
good thrusting, frequent skewering, and powerful pressing; they not ium-
probably arise partly from the use of cold and warm milk, which, if mixed
together, will generate air. Those of pungency and rankness, which are
commonly imputed to impurity in the rennet, and by some to the want of
salt, may be also more properly ascribed to the fezmentation occasioned by
the imperfect discharge of the whey.

Gloucester Cheese. — When the curd is sufficiently fir for breaking, it

21 Q

PLD, FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

is gently and slowly cut crosswise, to the bottom of the tub, at about an inch
apart, with a three-bladed knife of fourteen inches long. When it has stood
five or ten minutes, to allow it to sink a little, and the whey to come out as
clean as possible, some of the whey is dipped out of it with a bowl, and the
curd is again cut. ‘This must also be at first done slowly, and with strokes
at a considerable distance from each other, for, if performed hurriedly, a
great sediment of curd will be found in the whey-leads ; it should, however,
be gradually quickened, and the strokes taken nearer and nearer every time,
one hand with the skimming-dish keeping the whole in motion, and turning
up the lumps suspended in the whey, while the other cuts them as small as
possible. This process may occupy a quarter of an hour.

The curd is now allowed to settle during a quarter of an hour, when the
whey is taken from it, and poured through a very fine sieve placed over the
whey-leads, the curd being then cut into lumps, from which most of the re-
maining whey escapes. The curd is then pressed down with the hand into
vats, which are covered with large cheese-cloths of fine canvas, and placed
in the press for half an hour, after which they are taken out, and the curd
put into a mill, which tears it into small crumbs, and saves the laborious
part of squeezing and rubbing it with the hands, while it also retains that
portion of the oily matter which would be otherwise lost to the cheese, and
thus occasions a great improvement in the making.

In this pulverized state it is customary to scald the curd with hot whey,
though some consider the cheese richer when not scalded, for this washes
out a part of the fat. The whey should, nevertheless, be completely ex-
tracted, and the curd fitted into the vat as compactly as possible, being
rounded up in the middle, but only just so much as that it can be pressed
down toa level. A cheese-cloth is then spread over the vat, and a little
hot water is thrown over the cloth, as tending to harden the outside of the
cheese, and prevent it from cracking. ‘The curd is now turned out of the
vat into the cloth, and the inside of the vat being washed in whey, the in-
verted curd, with the cloth around it, is again returned to it; the cloth is
then folded over, and the vat put into the press, where it remains about two
hours, after which it is taken out and dry cloths applied, which should be
repeated in the course of the day; it is then replaced in the press until the
cheese is salted, which is generally done within twenty-four hours after it
1s made.

The salting is performed by rubbing the entire cheese with finely pow-
dered salt; for if the curd be salted before being put into the vat, its parti-
cles do not intimately unite, and although it may become a good cheese, it
is loose and crumbly, and never becomes a smooth, close, solid mass, like
that which has been salted after it has been made; but this is never done

THE DAIRY. 243

antil the skin is closed, for if there be any crack in it at that time, it will
not afterwards close. The cheese is after this returned to the vat and put
under the press, in which more cheeses than one are placed together, care
being always taken to put the newest lowest in the press, and the oldest
wppermost. The salting is repeated three times, — the cloths being removed
after the second, in order to efface their marks, — and twenty-four hours are
allowed to intervene between each; thus the cheese is witiin five days
taken from the press to the cheese-room, though in damp weather it should
remain somewhat longer. ‘There it is turned every day for a month, when
it is ready for cleaning, which is done by scraping with a common knife,
the operator sitting down to perform the operation. When it has been
cleared from all scurf, it is rubbed all over with a woollen cloth dipped in
paint made of Indian red, or Spanish brown, and small beer ; and as soon as
the state of the paint will permit, the edge of the cheese. and about an inch
on each side, are rubbed hard with a cloth, every week. The quantity of
salt is generally about three and a half pounds to the hundred weight, and
one pound of annatto is enough for half a ton of cheese.

The true characteristics of the double Gloucester cheese consist in its great
richness, together with the mildness of its flavor, and that waxy texture
which makes it cut, even in thin slices, without crumbling; while its oily
matter is retained in toasting, by merely softening itself, without being
burned.

Stilton Cheese. — This article, so proverbial for its richness, is made by
putting the night’s cream, without any portion of the skimmed milk, to the
miik of the following morning ; but those who wish to make it very fine
add a still greater quantity of cream, and of course the richness of the cheese
depends upon the amount which is used. Butter is also said to be some-
times mixed with it. The rennet is then added, without any coloring ; and,
when the curd has come, it is taken out without being broken, and put whole
into a sieve, or drainer, where it is pressed with weights until entirely
cleared of whey. When dry it is put, witha clean cloth, into a hooped
chessart, and placed under the press, the outer coat being first salted
When sufficiently firm to be removed from this mould, the cheese is placed
upon a dry board, and tightly bouna in a cloth, which is changed daily, in
order to avoid all danger of cracks in the skin, until this is found to be
tolerably well coated, after which it is no longer used, and the cheese re-
quires no further care than being frequently turned upside down, and occa-
sionally brushed.

The cheeses of this kind, although not much larger than the crown of an
ordinary sized hat — the form of which they much resemble — and not weigh-
ing more than about a dozen pounds, yet require nearly two years to bring

244 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

them to maturity ; for they are not generally thought sufficiently mellowed for
use until considerably decayed ; and, in order to forward their ripeness, it is
said that, besides their being placed in damp but warm cellars, they are
sometimes wrapped in strong brown paper, and sunk in a hot-bed. It is
also stated that the flavor of an old cheese may be communicated to a new
one, of whatever species, by some portions being intermixed with it. This
is done by extracting small pieces, with the sample-scoop, from each cheese,
and interchanging them; by this means, the new one, if well covered up
from the air, will in a few weeks become thoroughly impregnated with the
mould, and with a flavor hardly to be distinguished from the old one. The
cheeses selected for this operation should, however, be dry, and the blue
mould should be free from any portion of a more decayed appearance.
Dunlop Cheese. —'The Dunlop has acquired a high reputation for its mild
richness, and is made as follows: When so many cows are kept on one farm
as that a cheese of any tolerable size may be made every time they are
milked, the milk is passed, immediately as it comes from them, through a
sieve into the vat, and, when the whole is collected, it is formed into a curd
by the mixture of the rennet. Where, however, the cows are not so numer-
ous as to yield milk sufficient to form a cheese at each meal, the milk of
another meal is stored about six or eight inches deep in coolers, and placed
in the milk-house. The eream is then skimmed from the milk in the cool-
ers, and, without being heated, is put into the curd-vat, along with the milk
just drawn from the cows, and the cold milk, from which the cream has been
taken, is heated so as to raise the temperature to about blood-heat. This,
indeed, isa matter of great importance ; and though in summer 90° may be
sufficient, yet, upon the average of winter weather, 95° will be generally
found requisite. If coagulated much warmer, the curd becomes too ad-
hesive, much of the butyraceous matter is lost in the whey, and the cheese
will be found dry, tough, and tasteless ; but if too cold, the curd, which is
then soft, does not part readily with the serum, and the cheese is so want-
ing in firmness that it is difficult to be kept together ; indeed, even when the
utmost pains are taken to extract the whey, and give solidity to the cheese,
holes — which, in dairy language, are termed ‘‘ eyes,”’ ‘* whey-drops,”’ and
‘‘ springs ’’ — frequently break out, rendering them either rancid or insipid.
About a table-spoonful of the liquid rennet is generally thought sufficient
for twenty-five gallons of milk, and the curd is usually formed by it within
twelve or fifteen minutes, though in some dairies — of course, in consequence
of the difference of strength in the rennet — it does not come from three
quarters of an hour to an hour, though double the quantity of rennet is used.
The curd is then broken with the skimming-dish, or with the hand, and the
whey ought to be taken off as speedily as possible, though without pressing,

THE DAIRY. 245

as the least violence has been found to make it come off white, and thus
weaken the quality of the cheese. The best method of separating the whey
from the curd is, in the first instance, to lift the edge of the cheese-tub, and
let the whey run off slowly from it into a vessel placed underneath. The
tub is then let down to stand a little, after which it is turned one fourth
round, and another collection emptied off; thus, by turning the tub a fourth
time round every time, it is found to part from the curd more pure and
quickly.

When quite freed from the whey, and the curd has acquired a little con
sistence, it is then cut with the cheese-knife, gently at first, and more
minutely as it hardens, after which it is put into the drainer (which is a
square vessel, with small holes in the bottom, and a cover to fit inside), on
which the lid is placed, with a cloth thrown over it; and a slight pressure
—say from forty to fifty pounds, according to the quantity of curd — being
laid on, it is allowed to stand from fifteen to twenty minutes, or half an
hour. It is then cut into pieces of two inches square, the whey is again
discharged, and the weight, being doubled, is replaced. ‘The process of
cutting it smaller every half hour, and increasing the weight until the press.
ure is upwards of a hundred pounds, is continued for three or four hours.
It is then cut very small, and minutely salted, half an ounce being suffi-
cient.

A clean cheese-cloth, rinsed in warm water and wrung out, being then
placed in the chessart, the cheese is turned upside down, and laid, with in-
ereased weight, under the press, during the whole night. Next morning,
and during the three or four days which it must remain in the press, it is
daily turned repeatedly, dry cloths being each time used, and the weight is
gradually increased, until the pressure amounts to at Jeast a ton.

When ultimately taken from the press, the cheeses are generally kept
during a week or ten days in the farmer’s kitchen, where they are turned
three or four times every day, and rubbed with a dry cloth. ‘They are then
removed to the store-room, which should be in a cool exposure, between
damp and dry, without the sun being allowed to shine upon them, or yet a
great current of air admitted; this gradual mode of ripening being found
essential to prevent the fermentation and heaving of the cheese, as well as
the cracking of the rind; but attention must be paid to rub them with a dry
cloth, and turn them daily for a month or two, and twice every week after-
wards.

Practical Suggestions. —Such, then, are the most usual modes of manu-
facturing the world-renowned cheeses to which we have alluded, in which
the difference employed is in some cases very striking and important.

Thus, in the preparation of rennet, the bag itself is in some places used
a

246 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

while elsewhere the liquid decoction extracted from it is so much strenger
that it occasions the curd to coagulate, as we have just seen, within fifteen
minutes ; and in other places, it occupies an hour and a half, and not unfre-
quently more than two honrs. Now, it is not only the delay which is thus
disadvantageous ; for it is well known that the degree of heat at which the
curd is set is one of the nicest points in cheese-making, and we can hardly
imagine how that can be properly regulated, if it be allowed to stand so long
cooling in the cheese-tub.

The temperature to which the last night’s milk is heated when there is
not sufficient to make a cheese that one meal, and the mode in which the cream
is managed, differ also in various dairies ; nor does there appear any objec-
tion to the practice of making the last night’s milk into cheese, provided it
be so gradually heated as that the cream does not run the risk of being con-
verted into oil, as it does if too suddenly heated ; yet we believe that, when
once separated from the milk, the cream can never again be sc completely
blended with it as to be entirely retained in the curd when set; it conse-
quently runs off with the whey, and leaves the cheese of inferior quality.

The skewering of the curd, as practised in some dairies. is unknown in
most other places ; and the labor of several persons employed for three or
four hours in thrusting or hand-pressing it into the vat is an operation
which is generally managed in other dairies with a couple of maids, and in
one quarter of the time.

The heaving of the cheese is attributed to the imperfection of its ferment-
ation, occasioned in a great measure by the store-rooms— though com-
monly placed over the cow-house — not being sufficiently heated, so as to
occasion its sweating ; yet, in the account of the Dunlop cheese, objection
is made to heated stores, as causing an improper degree of fermentation.

The rankness of flavor, which is mostly attributed to the impurity of the
rennet, is by others ascribed to the nature of the pasture. In this, both sup-
positions may be right; for it must be evident that it may be readily
occasioned by the use of a large quantity of badly-prepared rennet ; and we
learn from the management of one of the dairies, where every means were
taken to avoid the fault, that the cheese still maintained an unpleasant taste
of the same description, which could, therefore, have only arisen from the
herbage. It was, however, at length uniformly overeome by throwing
about half a tea-spoonful of saltpetre into the pail before the cows were
milked. The cracks which frequently take place in cheese are also by
many persons supposed to proceed from lime having been used as a manure
upon land laid down to pasture, and afterwards fed by cows; but this is
probably a mistake, for it rarely occurs in the Dunlop sort, though perhaps
as much lime has been applied to the soil where that descripticn is made as

THE DAIRY. 247

to any other. It is more probably owing to the cheese being exposed, before
it is dry, to too much draught of air.

The mode of salting is also very differently conducted in several dairies ;
in some the practice being to cure the cheese after it has been removed
from the vat, while in others the salt is minutely mixed into the curd pre-
viously to its being put into the vat. Both practices, nevertheless, appear
to be attended with equally good effects, but the latter certainly occasions
less trouble, without any waste of salt.

Skim-mulk Cheese. —This article, made of milk from which the entire of
the cream has been taken, is, of course, more or less palatable in propor-
tion to the time during which the milk is allowed to stand ; for if that be so
long as to deprive it entirely of the butyraceous or oily matter, it becomes
indigestible, and so hard that, in some places, where large quantities of it
are made, it is said that, instead of being cut with a knife, it is usually
chopped with a hatchet.

The milk should, if possible, not be allowed to become sour ; and the mo-
ment it has been skimmed, it should be heated to no more than animal heat,
or about 90°; for, if put together too hot, its toughness will be increased,
and as the curd coagulates more readily than that of full-milk cheese, the
same degree of heat isnot necessary. This is the chief perceptible difference
in management, except that the curd is more difficult to be broken, and that
the cheese needs less of the press; but in all other respects the mode of
making is the same. It will also be sooner ready for use than whole-milk
cheese of the same weight.

Cream Cheese.—This being. in general, only wanted for immediate use,
is, in fact, little else than thick, sweet cream, dried by being put into a
small cheese-vat of about an inch and a half in depth, perforated with
small holes in the bottom, to allow any portion of the milk which may be
mixed with it to escape. It is also covered with rushes, or the long grass
of Indian corn, so disposed as to admit of its being turned without being
handled, and it is never pressed except gently by the hand between cloths.
It is thus kept in warm situations to sweat and ripen; for, if once pene-
trated by frost, or even chilled, much of its mellow richness is lost, and
it becomes comparatively insipid. The extreme of heat should, however,
be equally guarded against, or it becomes rank; and, therefore, some
judgment is requisite in the time for using it in perfection.

New Cheese. — New cheese is only made in the early part of summer,
when the cows have been turned out to grass, and is formed entirely of new
milk, with about one third of warm water added before the rennet is put te
it. The whey is then gently poured off, and the curd is carefully kept
entire until put into a vat of considerable diameter, but only about an inch

248 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

in depth. It is very gently pressed for a few hours only, and wnen
removed from the vat, it is covered with a cloth, which is frequently
changed, and so scun as the skin is formed it is considered fit for use.

Parmesan Cheese. — This is prepared as follows: The cows are kept in
the house nearly the whole year round, and fed during the summer with
cut grass, and in the winter upon hay. The weight of these cheeses
varies from sixty to one hundred and eighty pounds; it consequently
requires a great number of cows tv produce one of even the smallest weight,
and as the farms in that territory are not large, the dairymen club together.

The mode of making is this: The summer cheese, which is the best, is
made of the evening milk, after having been skimmed in the morning, and
at noon, mixed with the morning milk, which is also skimmed at noon.
Both kinds of milk are poured together into a large copper cauldron, of the
shape of an inverted bell, which is suspended on the arm of a lever, so as to
be moved on and off the fire at pleasure. In this vessel the milk is
gradually heated to the temperature of about 120°, after which it is removed
from the fire and kept quiet for a few minutes, until all internal motion has
ceased. ‘The rennet is then added, which is composed of the stomach of a
calf, fermented together with wheaten meal and salt, the method of using
it being to tie a piece, of the size of a hazelnut, ina rag, and steep it in
the milk, while held in the hand, and squeezing it from time to time. A
sufficient quantity of the rennet thus soon passes through the rag into the
milk, which is now to be well stirred, and afterwards left at rest to
coagulate.

Within about an hour the coagulation is complete, and then the milk is
again put over the fire, and raised to a temperature of 145°. During all the
time it is heating, the mass is briskly stirred, till the curd separates in small
lumps, when a part of the whey is taken out, and a few pinches of saffron
are added to the remainder, in order to color it. When the curd is suffi-
ciently broken, nearly the whole of the whey is taken out, and two pailfuls
of cold water are poured in. The temperature is thus lowered, so as to
enable the operator to collect the curd by passing a cloth beneath it, and
gathering it up at the corners. It is now pressed into a frame of wood,
placed on a solid platform, and covered by a round piece of wood fitting into
the mould, with a heavy weight at top. In the course of the night it cools,
parts with the whey, and assumes a firm consistence. ‘The next day one
side is rubbed with salt, and the succeeding day the cheese is turned, and
the other side rubbed in like manner, this alternate salting being continued
for about forty days. After this period, the outer crust of the cheese is
pared off, the fresh surface is varnished with linseed oil, the convex side is
colcred red, and the cheese is fit for market.

THE DAIRY. 245

Potato Cheese. — Cheese, which is said to be of very fine quality, is

partly formed from potatoes, being made in the following manner : — The

potatoes of a large, white kind, are those to be preferred, and after being
boiled, they are peeled, when cool, and reduced to a pulp, of equal con-
sistence, either by being grated or ground in a mortar. ‘To five pounds of
this pulp there is added one pound, or about a pint, of sour milk, with the
usual quantity of salt to impart a flavor ; the whole is then kneaded together,
and, being covered up, is allowed to remain for three or four days, according
to the season. At the expiration of this time, the pulp is again kneaded,
and placed in one or more small wicker baskets, in order to get rid of the
superfluous moisture; the pulp is then moulded into form by being placed
in smal] pots, in which the cheeses are allowed to dry in the shade during
about fifteen days, after which they are put instore. The older they are,
the better they become; and, if kept dry, they will keep for a great number
of years. Three kinds of this cheese are made: the first, or most common,
according to the above proportions; the second, with four parts of potatoes
and two parts of curdled milk; and the third, with two parts of potatoes
and four of milk. Ewe-milk is as frequently employed as that of cows, and
imparts a pungent taste, which to many palates is found agreeable.

Green or Sage Cheese. —The method pursued in the making of this
article is, to steep over night, in a proper quantity of milk, two parts of
sage, one part of marigold-leaves, and a little parsley, after they have been
bruised. On the following morning, the greened milk is strained off, and
mixed with about one third of the whole quantity intended to be run or
coagulated. ‘The green and white milks are run separately, the two curds
being kept apart, until ready for vatting ; these may be mixed, either evenly
and intimately, or irregularly and fancifully. The management is the
same as for common cheese.

CHAPTER VI.
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, &c.

BTANDARD KINDS : — APPLE — APRICOT — BARBERRY — BLACKBERRY — CHERRY
— CRANBERRY — CURRANT — GOOSEBERRY — GRAPE — MEDLAR — MELON —
MULBERRY — NECTARINE —- PEACH — PEAR — PLUM — QUINCE — RASPBERRY
— STRAWBERRY. . MISCELLANEOUS KINDS : — ALMOND — BLUEBERRY — BUT-
TERNUT — CHESTNUT — FIG — FILBERT — LEMON — LIME — OLIVE — ORANGE —
POMEGRANATE — SHELLBARK — WALNUT — WHORTLEBERRY ; — WITH A MONTHLY
CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS.

THE APPLE.

Propagation. — The apple may be propagated by seeds, cuttings of the
branches or roots, by layers, suckers, in arching, grafting, or budding; but
the last two modes are principally for continuing varieties, and seeds are
used to obtain new varieties.

Soil and Situation. — It will grow in any common soil, neither too sandy
gravelly, nor clayey, on a dry subsoil, and a free exposure.

Mode of Bearing, gc.— The apple bears invariably on the old wood
often on that of the preceding year; and the blossoms continue being pro-
duced from terminal and lateral spurs, or short, robust shoots, many years.
These spurs require to be thinned out when they become crowded, to be
shortened when they become too long, and to be cut in when they become
so old as to produce smaller fruit than is desirable.

Pruning. —'The object of this is to admit the light and air among the
branches, to preserve the symmetry of the head by causing it to spread
equally and in the same form and manner on every side, and to eradicate
diseased branches. (See chapter on Grartine, Buppine, Prunine, &c.,

Fig. 118.

Gathering and Keeping. —The common mode of keeping, by those who
grow apples in large quantities for the market, is to lay them in heaps in
(250)

—_—_s)

Or =e a ee

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 251

cool dry cellars, and cover them with abundance of straw. They may be
kept in a cellar, packed in barrels, the interstices filled with dry sand, so as

Fig. 119.

to exclude the air. ‘Table apples may be spread upon shelves, or packed
in sand, fern, or straw, in jars.
VARIETIES.
Summer Apples.

Early Harvest. — This is one of the earliest varieties worthy of cultiva-
tion; its form is flat, medium size, bright straw-colored skin, flesh tender

and sprightly. In the Middle and Western States it grows well, and is
much esteemed. Ripens in July and August.

Red Astrachan. — This is a fruit of extraordinary beauty. It bears abun-
dantly, the fruit being rather above the middle size, and very smooth and
fair, roundish, a little narrowed towards the eye. The prevailing color is
deep crimson, with sometimes a little greenish yellow in the shade, and
occasionally a little russet near the stalk, and covered with a pale white
bloom. Stalk rather short, and deeply inserted. Flesh white, crisp,
moderately juicy, of a rich, acid, agreeable flavor. Ripe in August, and
does not keep a long time after gathering. Hardy, vigorous, and produc-
tive Adapted to various soils and climates. Fig. 121.

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 253

Willkams’s Favorite. — This is a moderate grower and a good bearer,
requiring a strong soil to perfect it. It is large and handsome, and ripens
from the last of July to the first of September. Skin very smooth, nearly
covered witha fine dark red Flesh yellowish-white, of mild and agreeable
flavor. Fig. 122,

Fig. 123.

thet Ne ae

254 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Juneating. —This is an old, favorite variety, of small size, flat form,
long and thin stalk; color a pale green, turning to light yellow when ripe ;
the skin has an oily feel; the taste is pleasant. Bears abundantly in
good ground, ripening from the last of June to the middle of July. Fig. 123.

Summer Queen. — A popular apple, of the finest quality and appezrance.
Large size; color fine, rich, vellow ground, mixed with red striped, long
stalk; large tree; great bearer; flesh rich, yellow, and agreeable flavor.
Best on sandy soil. Fig. 124.

Maiden’s Blush. — An apple of large size and great beauty ; has a yellow
ground, bright red cheek ; form flat; smooth skin; flesh white, tender, and
sprightly ; ripens in August, hardy, and great bearer. Fig. 125.

Remarks. — The above comprise some of the most universally esteemed
Summer apples ; to which may be added the following well-established sorts,
out of hundreds contained in the nursery catalogues : — American Summer
Pearmain, a staple sort in New Jersey; Benoni; Cole, large and hand-
some: Early Red Margaret, a capital fruit, ripe in July; Early Strawberry,
much esteemed in New York; Large Yellow Bough, a fine dessert fruit ,
Summer Rose, dessert; Sapson; Tucker; Manomet Sweeting ; Spice Sweet:
Red Quarrenden.

Fall Apples.

Porter. — A large and popular variety, very productive; skin bright
yellow, with a blush; flesh fine-grained and juicy; ripens last of Septem
ber to October.

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, Elv. 255

Fall Pippin. — A fine kind, quite popular in the Middle States. Large
size; round; skin smooth, oily, bright greenish-yellow, slightly speckled ;
flesh white, tender, juicy, of a superior flavor. Ripens from last of Octo-
- ber to December.

Gravenstein. — Vigorous tree, and very productive. Fruit large; color
clear straw or yellow, with stripes of red ; flesh pale yellow, crisp, delicious

256 FARMEk’S HAND-BOOK.

flavor. A fine fruit for dessert, cooking, or cider; ripe in September and
October. Fig. 126.

Rambo. — Sometimes called Gilpin, Romanite, Bread and Cheese, and
Seck-no-further. Popular in Middle States. Does well on a light sandy
soil. Size not large; flat; skin smooth; color variegated. flesh greenish-
white, tender, rich, slightly acid. Productive, ripening last of October to
late in the season. Fig. 127.

Yellow Bellflower.— A much-admired fruit, rather preferring a sandy
soil. Fruit large, oblong; skin smooth; color pale yellow, with a blush
flesh juicy, tender, sub-acid. A good bearer, ripening in November.

Remarks. — The five preceding varieties are among the choicest Fall
apples. There are others of nearly equal value, such as the Golden Sweet ;
Richardson ; Summer Bellflower, of New York; Bars, of Rhode Island ;
Lyman’s Large Summer, of Connecticut; Winthrop Greening, of Maine;
Early Joe, of New York; Mexico, of Connecticut; Superb Sweet, of Mas-
sachusetts ; Fairbanks; Sassafras, or Haskell Sweet; Fall Wine; Lowell;
Moses Wood ; Jersey Sweeting ; Lelaxd Pippin; Pomme Royal, of Ohio;

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.

258 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.

Lyscom; Magnolia; Thompkins, Jewett’s Red, Fameuse; Golden Ball;
Hurlbut, Belmont; Herefordshire Pearmain.

Winter and Spring Apples.

Esopus Spitzenberg.— This apple possesses great beauty and exquisite
flavor. Large size; skin fair and smooth; color bright red, with small
spots; flesh yellow, rich, juicy, and sprightly ; good bearer. Fig. 129.

Baldwin. — Also called Pecker, and Steele’s Red Winter. Ranks very
high in the northern markets. Fruit large, roundish; color yellow and
dull red, streaked and dotted; flesh pale-white, crisp, highly flavored.
Good bearer, ripening from November to April. Fig. 130. _

Hubbardston Nonsuch.— A superior variety. The tree grows large,
vigorous, and handsome; bears abundantly. Fruit large, globular, or coni-

Fig. 131.

cal; colo. yellow, with stripes of pale red, flesh yellow, juicy, rich, sweet.
relieved by a slight acid. Ripens in November and December.

Westfield Seek-no-further.— Same as the Seek-no-further of Connecticut
—an old and valued fruit. Size large; round; color pale red and green,
with slightly yellow dots; flesh white, tender, and rich. Fig. 132.

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flavor.

—Very poplar, and extensively grown. Medium size,

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— The Green and the Yellow are two
of this apple. It grows well in the Middle and Western

medium; flesh fine, firm, crisp, juicy, very superior

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Roxbury Russet.

260 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

roundish, somewhat flat; skin dull green or brownish-yellow; flesh green-
ish white, compact, slightly acid, but rich flavored. Ripe in Dec. Fig. 133.

Rhode Island Greening. — Also called Jersey; and Burlington Greening.
A very large fruit, flat ul its base and summit; color yellowish-green, with.
dark spots; flesh yellow, tender; rich, juicy, acid flavor; ripens from Sep-
tember to March; bears abundantly. A universal favorite.

Golden Pippin. — Beautiful dessert apple. Small, round, symmetrica) ;
gold color, with dark dots; flesh yellowish ; rich, sprightly flavor; great

Fig. 134.

bearer, flourishing best on a strong sandy loam. Ripens November to
March.

Lady Apple. — Superior for the table. Fruit small, but beautiful; rather
flat; skin smooth ; color yellow and red; flesh firm, white, well flavored.

Remarks. —It would be easy to extend the foregoing list of Winter and
Spring apples, had we the room requisite. We have described the most
desirable standard sorts for cultivation in this country, and subjoin the —

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 261

names of other varieties of note: Detroit; Northern Spy; Blue Pearmain ;
Peck’s Pleasant; Swaar; Waxen Apple; King; Gloria Mundi; Norton’s
Melon ; Golden Reinette; Hollow Crown Pearmain ; Ladies’ Sweeting ; Dan-
vers Winter Sweeting; Fort Miami; Wood’s Greening ; Vandevere ; Jona-
than; Minister; Old Nonsuch; Prior’s Red; Leicester Sweeting ; Tolman
Sweeting ; American Golden Russet; Little Pearmain ; Tewksbury Winter
Blush; Raule’s Janette; Rockrimmon; Never Fail.

Cider Apples.

The most valuable kinds for the manufacture of cider are the Harrison
(Fig. 136) and Cam/field, extensively raised in the Middle States, being rich

Fig. 136.

in flavor, and bearing very abundantly ; Hugh’s Virginia Crab, small size,
but very productive ; and the Red Streak.

Crab Apples.

Red Siberian. — A beautiful tree, and a great bearer. Fruit small, about
the size of a cherry, growing im clusters; color bright red, when matured ;

262 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

globular form, long and thin stem. Excellent for preserves. Ripe in Sep-
tember.

Yellow Siberian.— The tree, its habits and appearance — excepting the
color of the fruit— is similar to the preceding. The color of the fruit isa
fine, clear yellow, or a rich golden hue. Ripe in September and October.

Maxine Crper.—In order to make good cider, sound fruit only must
be used, and this should be gathered in dry weather, if possible, after the
first of October. Let the fruit lay in heaps for some days to sweat and
ripen; but be careful not to grind it while damp, and remember that the
finer the apples are ground, not only will the yield be greater, but the
quality of the cider will also be proportionally improved. A well-fitted
mill will crush the seed also, thus imparting a peculiar aromatic-bitter
taste to the must, which becomes stronger as the cider obtains age. The
pomace may be allowed to stand from six to twenty-four hours after being
ground, or it may be pressed at once, according as it is desired to give to
the cider a pale or a high color, Figure 138 represents Hicock’s patent
portable cider-mill, by the use of which more work can be done than
can be effected with much larger stationary mills.

Fermentation of the Jwice.—Cider is capable of three different kinds of
fermentation: the vinous, which originates the alcohol that imparts to
the liquor its stimulating and exhilarating qualities; the acid, which
changes the cider into vinegar; and the putrid, which destroys it entirely,
by converting it into a nauseous and poisonous liquid. The principal
object aimed at in making cider being to stop the fermentation when it
has progressed to the vinous stage, and before it takes on the acid char-
acter, the fermentation should be slow, and the temperature of the apart-
ment never exceed 48° Fahrenheit. 'o secure this object, pour the liquor,
after being strained, into large hogsheads, placed on a platform raised
about six feet from the floor. A faucet should be inserted at the bottom
of each hogshead, by which, when the fermentation has ceased, and the
liquor has become clear, it may be drawn off at once into barrels without
coming in contact with the atmospheric air, which produces the acetous

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 263

fermentation. Experienced cider-makers in England say that the acid
fermentation is progressing at the same time with the vinous, and that
the liquor is, from the commencement, absorbing oxygen at the surface.

Fig. 138.

To check this, it is recommended to add pulverized charcoal to the liquor
as it comes from the press, in the proportion of eight pounds to the hogs-
head. This at first makes the liquor very black, but eventually it becomes
remarkably fine.

Preparation of Casks.—As soon as emptied, the casks should be rinsed
with cold water. If they become sour, and covered with acid scum, a
pint of unslaked lime must be put into each cask, together with three or
four gallons of water, the bung-hole closed, and the whole well shaken.

264 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

When cool, rinse them out with cold water, after which pour in about six
gallons of scalding water, and when every part of the cask is heated,
pour it off, and turn the cask bung down to dry. When dry, bung up
the casks, and stow them away carefully for use the following year.

Fining and Bottling.—Cider should be bottled during the cold weather
of winter. It may be clarified by adding to the contents of each cask
one ounce of isinglass in solution, which must be well mixed with the
cider, and in seven or eight days it will be ready for bottling. Cider
should never stand on the finings more than ten or twelve days, and,
when properly fined, it will be clear and transparent—otherwise it is not
fit for bottling.

Vinegar.—The best cider vinegar may be made by adding to a cask of
good cider four pounds of white Havana sugar and half a pound of tartar.

THE APRICOT.

Propagation. —The apricot-tree may be raised from the stone, like the
peach, or by budding, either on its own or plum stocks.

So?! and Situation. —The soil which suits the apricot best is a rich black
mould, though some recommend a light loam. It thrives better in the
Middle States than at the North, where, when propagated, it needs shelter.

VARIETIES.

Early Apricot. — This variety is round-shaped, little inclined to oblong,
with a furrow running from the stem to the head; color bright yellow, with

Fig. 139,

a red cheek; flesh yellowish white, rich, juicy, finely flavored 1t ripens in
the month of July, which is one of its chief merits.

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FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 265

Large Early. — This is a fine fruit, which also ripens in July. The fruit

is of medium size, somewhat oblong ; color orange, rather pale ; flesh straw-
An excellent sort

color, rich, juicy, easily leaving the stone.

Peach. — This is the largest, and by many considered the finest, of all the
varieties. The form is round, with compressed sides; color a yellowish

4 fawn on the shady side, slightly colored with red towards the sun, flesh
q yellow, sprightly, juicy, and highly flavored. Ripens in August. Fig 140.
23

266 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Brussels.—The most hardy tree, and, perhaps, the most certain, in our
climate. It is large, long fruit; color a pale yellow, with a portion of
red, and some spots ; flesh a pale yellow, firm, rich, tender, and juicy ;
clear at the stone ; does not grow mealy ; ripens in July. Fig. 141.

REMARKS.—Of the other cultivated sorts, the Moorpark and Red Mas-
culine are the most valuable and popular ; besides these, there are the
Breda; Black ; Roman—good for the North ; White Masculine ; Tur-
key. There are also varieties exclusively ornamental.

THE BARBERRY.

Culture, &c.—But little may be said respecting this well-known shrub,
which grows spontaneously in this country and in Europe, bearing a
small acid berry, much used as a pickle and preserve. It is readily
propagated by seeds and suckers, in a light, rich soil.

Fig. 142.

VARIETIES. |

Common Red.—This is the variety most known, and its appearance

and habits are too familiar to require any description here. Its color,
when fully ripe, is a deep scarlet, with a slightly dark tinge.

THE BLACKBERRY.

Although the Blackberry grows plentifully in its wild state, yet it is

now largely cultivated, either by planting the seed in rich soil, and
manuring freely, or by setting out layers.
VARIETIES

The Kittatinny, Lawton and Wilson, are all choice kinds.

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 267

Trailing—This variety is produced on a low shrub, with trailing
branches. The fruit is large, roundish-oblong, andripensin July. The
best for all purposes.

High.—This is an erect shrub, growing tothe height of eight or ten feet.
The fruit (Fig. 148) is generally somewhat smaller than the Trailing,
and, though highly esteemed, is not so rich and highly flavored as the
first-named. Sometimes raised in gardens.

White.—Not much known—has white fruit.

Double White Flowering, and Double Pink Flowering.—These are or-
namental varieties, growing very luxuriantly, and making a splendid
appearance when trained on walls and fences. Not so common in the
Northern States as elsewhere.

THE CHERRY.

Propagation.—The Cherry-tree is propagated by seeds and by suckers,
when stems are wanted ; by seeds alone, when new varieties are wanted ;
by scions, when working on old subjects ; and by buds, when the trees
are young. If intended for dwarfs, bud the plants at two, and if for
standards, at four, years of age. The spring succeeding this operation
is the time for transplanting.

Soil and Situation.—This tree will grow and thrive in a diversity of
soils, but prefers adeep loam, ina free exposure. A wet soil is not adapted
for its healthy growth and bearing ; neither should the soil be too rich, as
it will then become thrifty in wood, without corresponding fruitfulness.

VARIETIES.

Black Heart—also known as Harly Black, New May Duke, Ansell’s
Fine Black, Spanish Black Heart, Black Russian, and Black Caroon—

268 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Fig. 144,

is an old and esteemed variety : fruit large, heart-shaped ; color dark purple
to deep black ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, well-flavored. Ripens last of June.

May Duke—also known as Early Duke, Holman’s Duke, and June Duke —
is one of the choicest and most thrifty sorts, and very extensively cultivated.
The fruit is roundish, growing in clusters; color red; flesh soft and juicy,
rich, and of fine flavor. Ripens in June.

Fig. 145.

Bigarreau.— Yellow Spanish, White Bigarreau, White Tartarean, by
some. Size large to very large, heart-shaped and flattened; color pale

4 .
7

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 269

yellow, or straw, slightly dotted; flesh yellowish tinge, firm, juivy, and
sweet. Ripens towards the last of June, and is a superior sort.

American Amber. — Early Amier, and New Honey, by some. Fruit
medium size, growing in clusters of three or more; color dark pink, when
ripe; flesh rich, sweet, amber color. Ripe in June. Fig. 145.

Elion. — Size quite large, and heart-shaped; tree hardy, with dark red
footstalks to the leaves; skin rather thin; color somewhat variegated, with
pale straw and red in streaks; flesh firm, juicy, and sweet; ripens in June,
and bears abundantly. Much esteemed.

Black Eagle.— A foreign sort, very popular in some parts; size about
medium ; heart-shaped, somewhat globular; color ed ca Mek flesh
tender, juicy, and well-flavored. Ripens in July.

Ox Heart.— A long, large, heart-shaped cherry, with a dark red skin;
flesh rich, firm, with a fair flavor. Ripens early in July.

Black Tartarean.— Also known as Black Russian, Ronald’s Large Black
Heart, and Black Circassian. A large and superior fruit; heart-shaped ;
color blackish-purple; flesh dark, firm, sweet, excellent flavor. Fine
pearer, and is ripe about the first of July.

Downer’s Late. —Fruit large size, oval. Skin smooth, light red; flesh
firm, juicy, sweet, and delicious; ripe in early part of July, lasting a con-
siderable time. Certain and productive bearer.

Fig. 146.

ATT TA
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Early White Heart. — A very early sort, ripening near the end of May.
Size rather small, and oblong heart-shaped; skin waxy white, tinged with

Fig. 147.

a pale red ; flesh firm, sweet, and finely flavored: not so productive as the
May Duke, and some others
23 *

270 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

REMARKS.—The other established and standard sorts are the Doctor,
Belle de Choisy, Napoleon Bigarreau, White Tartarean, Norello, Knight's
Early Black, Florence, Downton, Manning’s Mottled, Holland Bigarreau,
Elliott's Favorite, Hyde's Seedling, and Kentish.

THE WILD CHERRY comprises several varieties, and the best kind being
the Black, which is ripe in September or October, and is used for various
medicinal purposes. The Choke Cherry is another kind, bearing a red
berry, which matures earlier than the first-named.

THE CRANBERRY.

General Cultrue, &e—Comparatively speaking, the cultivation of the
cranberry has now been reduced to a very certain and well-defined sys-
tem. It is anative fruit, growing on a low trailing vine, found in bogs,
meadows, swamps, and other wet lands. The berry is round, red, and
quite acid, the finest variety being found in this country, where it com-
mands a high price.

Fig. 148

Some persons enumerate three kinds, only one of which, often called
the Bell, is adapted to a dry soil. It grows wild, on the borders of bogs,
spreading its way to upland soils, and is much larger than the other
kinds, in its wild state. Persons engaging in the cultivation of this |
fruit may begin with the Bell ; by commencing with those which have .
been cultivated, or naturalized to a dry soil, they will much sooner

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC 271

accomplish their object, and with much less trouble and expense, as the
plants multiply and increase abundantly. From one or two thousand plants,
enough may be obtained, in two or three years, to plant a very large surface
of ground.

Select a moist soil, not liable to bake ; loamy soils, which are moderately
dry, and contain a mixture of sand, are well adapted for the purpose. The
soil should be prepared by ploughing, harrowing, and making it even, and
should be marked out in drills eighteen or twenty inches apart, putting
the plants in the drills about six inches apart; hoe them slightly, till the
roots become clinched, when further cultivation is unnecessary. In two or
three years the plants may be expected to run together and cover the whole
soil. It will yield from one hundred and fifty to four hundred bushels per
acre, the size being two or three times as large as the wild, and of a superior
flavor, and keeps sound from the harvest of one year to that of the next.
The fruit is generally gathered in September, with wire-tooth rakes made

Fig. 149.

for the purpose (Fig. 149). One man may gather from thirty to forty
bushels per day, with the aid of a boy to pick up the scattered fruit.

The roots may be planted either in spring or fall; the former from the
time when the ground can be worked till the middle of May, and the latter
in October and November.

In some places, low and coarse meadows, of no value, have been drained
and planted with the cranberry, and are thus made very profitable. After

272 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

draining the land well, and removing all brush and shrubs, the svil 1s
ploughed, though it is usually sufficient to cover the surface with a heavy
top-dressing of sandy soil, and then make holes four feet apart, into which
the sods, or square bunches of the cranberry-roots, are planted. Some
eranberry-growers think it expedient to flow such lands, the water being let
on about the 20th of October, and remain till the 20th of May, or till the
frosts have disappeared, in order that the blossoms may not be cut off in the
spring, by appearing too early.

To keep Cranberrics. — When the fruit is to be exported, it is put, ina
perfect state, into tight barrels, filled with water, and headed up, by which
means they are kept sound and good.

THE CURRANT.

Propagation.— The best method of propagation is by cuttings, — the

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 273

shoots of the last summer's production, of straight, clean growth, shorten-
ing each from about ten to twelve or fifteen inches long, according to its
strength.

Plant in rows about two feet asunder, and about nine inches apart in the
rows ; let no limbs grow nearer than six inches to the ground; prune every
year, giving free access to the sun. ‘To cultivate on an extensive scale, set

)
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274 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the bushes in rows, six or eight feet between each bush, with intervals of
proper width for passing across the rows.

Soil and Situation. — A strong, rich, deep loam brings the fruit to its
highest state of perfection, but it will thrive in a much poorer soil.

VARIETIES.

Red Dutch, — also known as Morgan’s Red, and Red Grape, — is a large-
sized currant ; color red ; rather mild flavor ; grows in long clusters.

White Dutch. —White Leghorn, White Crystal, Morgan’s White, Reeve’s
White, by some. Size large; skin slightly yellowish; flavor mild; quite
hardy. A variety much esteemed for the dessert. Fig. 150.

Black Naples. — This is considered the best of the black varieties, being
larger and more prolific. It is not so well suited to a southern clime.

Champagne. — A pale-red fruit, large, and quite acid. Not of superior
quality.

May’s Victoria. — This is a newly-introduced sort, bearing a large berry,
of a brilliant red color. ‘The flavor is very superior, and the bush is very
productive. By many persons it is esteemed the best of all the colored
kinds. Fig. 151.

Remarxs.— The other notable varieties are Knight’s Early Red, Com-
mon Black, and Striped Fruited. The varieties described above are, how-
ever. the best.

THE GOOSEBERRY.

Propagation. —The mode by cuttings is usually adopted for continuing
varieties, and that by seeds for procuring new ones. Plant the enttings in
autumn.

Soil and Situation. — Any good garden-soil, on a dry bottom and well
manured, will suit the gooseberry ; that which is soft and moist producing
the largest fruit. The situation should not be under the drip of trees over-
much shaded or confined, otherwise the fruit will be small, ill-flavored, and
the plants apt to mildew. Keep well pruned.

VARIETIES.

Capper’s Top Sawyer. — A. large, round, hairy fruit ; branches somewhat
drooping ; ripens somewhat Jate ; considered very fine.

Melling’s Crown Bob. — Berry of large size, oblong, bright red, hairy,
good flavor, rather late. It is highly recommended by growers, as an excel
lent sort, and profitable to cultivate in gardens or elsewhere. Fig. 152.

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 27

Houghton’s Seedling. —This variety is said not to mildew under any
circumstances. It grows very thrifty, and bears abundantly, though the

Fig. 153.

berry is not so large size as some others; flesh soft and sweet; skin deli-
cate ; color dark. A very superior sort, if not the very best. Fig. 153.

Woodward’s Whitesmith. — Large, white, roundish, erect branches, fine
flavor ; considered an excellent kind.

Coleworth’s White Lion. — White, roundish-oblong, downy ; ripens late ;
excellent flavor, branches drooping, good bearer.

Crompton’s Sheba Queen. — Fruit good size, rather early ; form roundish-
oblong ; downy ; good flavor.

Early Green Hairy. — Fruit small, round, and hairy; deep green ; flavor
excellent ; ripens quite early.

Red Warrington. — Fruit large and roundish; excellent flavor.

Remarks. — Farrow’s Roaring Lion, Parkinson’s Laurel, Keene’s Seed-
ling, Early Sulphur, Yellow Ball, Early White, White Honey, Pitmaston
Green Gage, Old Rough Red, Hill’s Golden Gourd, Prophet’s Rockwood,
Nizon’s Green Myrtle, and Wellington’s Glory, are also well-known sorts.

276 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

THE GRAPE.

Propagation. — Vines are propagated in the open ground by layers and
by cuttings. The former is the readier mode, if the shoots be laid down in
pots, and planted out in summer. The latter mode is much the better. To
provide cuttings to be planted at the proper season, select, at the autumnal
pruning, a sufficient number of shoots of the preceding summer’s growth,
such as are well ripened, of a medium size, and moderately short-jointed.
Cut them into convenient lengths of six or eight buds each, leaving at
the ends not less than a couple of inches of the blank wood for the protec-
tion of the terminal buds. Stick these temporary cuttings about nine inches
in the ground, in a warm and sheltered situation, where they will be pro-
tected from the severity of winter. The best time to plant them out is about
the last of March, or fore part of April.

Soil and Situation. — A light, porous, rich, sandy loam, not more than
eighteen inches deep, on a dry bottom of gravel, stones or rocks, is the best.
The warmer the aspect, the greater perfection does the grape usually attain.
Warmth alone is not, however, sufficient; shelter from the withering in-
fluence of the wind is equally necessary.

Culture, §c. — Manure composed of bones, whole or crushed, the horns
and hoofs of 2~imals, as well as their carcasses, cuttings of leather, woollen
rags, feathers, hair, urine, blood, — indeed, almost every variety of manure
may be used to fertilize and enrich the soil occupied by the vine. If very
rich manures are used, they should be mixed with turf and sand, otherwise
so much benefit does not accrue.

Pruning. —In pruning the vine, always cut upwards, and ina sloping
direction ; always leave an inch of blank wood between the terminal bud,
and let the eye be cut on the opposite side of the bud; leave as few wounds
as possible, and Jet the surface of every cut be perfectly smooth. In cutting
out an old branch, prune it even with the parent limb, that the wound may
hea] quickly ; prune so as to obtain the quantity of fruit desired on the
. smallest number of shoots possible ; never prune in frosty weather, nor when
frost is expected; never prune in the spring, as this causes bleeding, and
therefore a wasteful and injurious flow of sap ; prune as soon after the first
of October as the gathering of the fruit will permit.

Training. —'To train a vine on the surface of a wall is to regulate the
position of its branches, the principal objects of which are, to protect them
from the influence of the wind ; to bring them into close contact with the wall,
for the purpose of receiving the benefit of its warmth ; to spread them at
proper distances from each other, that the foliage and fruit may receive the
ful] effects of tne sun’s rays; and to retard the motion of the sap, so as to

secure the formation of fruit-buds. The flow of sap, it must be remembered,
is always strongest in a vertical direction, and weakest in a downward one ;
on this account, serpentine training is preferable, being calculated to check
the too rapid ascent of the sap, and to make it .flow more equally into the
fruiting-shoots, and those intended for future bearers.

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 277

VARIETIES.

Black Hamburgh.— A well-known variety, but more adapted to the vinery
than for out-of-door culture. The bunches are quite large size ; berries

Fig. 154.

large, roundish, slightly oval; skin thick, deep purple or nearly black ;
flavor rich and sweet. A productive and valuable sort.

Miller’s Burgundy.— A very hardy and fruitful grape, very popular, and
extensively grown. Its leaves are very thick, covered on both sides with a
thick down. The bunches are small, but solid ; skin thick, of a blue-black
color ; flesh tender, juicy, and pleasant.

Fig. 155.

Muscat of Alexandria.— There are the White and the Red Muscat, the
_ former (a) being large in the berry, of oval sizc, and fruiting in long, large

278 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

bunches ; the skin is thick ; flesh firm, juicy, musky flavor, very agreeable
eating ; hangs a long time on the branches. The Red resembles the White,
except in color (6). Ripens finely on walls. Fig. 155.

Catawba. — This is a native sort, highly esteemed. It is hardy, vigorous,
and productive; large bunches; color deep purple and palish-red ; thick

Fig. 156.

skin ; pulp sweet, rich, finely flavored. Ripens first part of October. Supe-

rior for wine, or eating, and succeeds well in any tolerably fair situation.
Isabella. — A hardy plant, very productive, and, in this country, almost

universally grown. Bunches large, rather loose; berries fair size, oval ;

skin thick, purplish black ; flesh soft to firm, juicy, sweet, aromatic. A
most valuable variety, rather late at the North, but seasonable in the Middle
and Western States.

Alexander. — Known also as the Schuylkill Muscadel. A certain and pro-
lific bearer ; large, bluish-black berry ; oval ; skin thick ; flesh firm, sweet,
musky flavor. Not so thrifty at the North as the two previous sorts.

Scuppernong.— Distinguished by its diminutive leaves ; grows wild in
some parts of the United States, and is in considerable use as a wine fruit,
for which purpose it is esteemed one of the best. The White andthe Black
are scarcely dissimilar in any particular, except their respective colors.
The bunches are rather small; berries large, pretty round; thick skin ;
flesh sweet and juicy, with a musky taste and flavor.

Remarxs.— There are numerous other varieties worthy of an extended

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 279

notice, on account of their peculiar adaptedness to particular sections,
and their distinctive uses, such as the Royal Muscadine, Early Black July,
Black Prince, Bland, Ohio, Lenoir, Diana, Winnie, Clinton, Cunningham,
Warren's Madeira, Elsinburgh, Norton’s Virginia, White Sweetwater, Black
Sweetwater, Black, Grizzly, White Frontignan, and Missourt.
Vineyarps.—The making of wine having now become an important
branch of agricultural industry, a short sketch of the mode of laying
out and cultivating a vineyard, gathering the grapes, making and fining

the wines, etc. may not be here out of place. The best preparation for

I RNE
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ma Ye

ine
i

@ vineyard is to dig the ground up to the depth of three feet during the
autumn previous to planting the vines. In spring lay it off into hills
distant from each other six feet in one direction, and five feet in the other,
and in each hill plant two cuttings, to guard against the possibility of
one failing to grow. If both cuttings sprout, one of them may either be
cut off, or transplanted.

Culture. — During the jirst year the labors of the vine-dresser are con-
fined to hoeing the ground, and removing the weeds, as well as all super-
fluous shoots. The following spring the young vines are cut down to a

2850 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

single eye or joint, and trained to stakes, which are made of locust or
oak, and six or seven feet in length. One of these is driven into the earth
close to each vine, which is fastened to it with a wisp of straw. All the
suckers are trimmed off, and the ground kept clear and well loosened.
The second spring after planting the vines are cut down to three eyes or
joints, but the general cultivation is the same as during the first year.
If any of the sets have not taken root, they are replaced by new ones,
The third year the vines are cut down to four or five joints, all the suckers
trimmed off, the vines tied up, and hoed thoroughly. Two shoots are
trained to each stake. ‘The vines commence to bear during the third
year, and thereafter are pruned and trained every year, during the month
of December. The standard stalk is established during the fourth year,
by cutting down the best shoot of the preceding year to six or eight joints,
bending it over in the form of a bow, and fastening it to the stake with
willow ties. This is called the bearing-wood. The other shoot is cut
down to a spur of two or three eyes, and forms a reserve of bearing-wood
for the following season. Each succeeding year the old bearing-wood is
pruned away, and a new arch formed with the best shoot of the new wood
—a spur being left, as before, to furnish bearing-wood for the next year.
The original stalk being thus always kept about two feet high, the vine
is always within control; and, as the vines extend, they are trained from
stake to stake, until the fruit has nearly ripened, when the green ends are
excised. During each summer the ground is hoed two or three times,
and kept scrupulously clean; and every third year the land is trenched,
and two or three inches of well-rotted manure turned in.

Pressing the Grapes.—The grapes are never gathered until the saccha-
rine principle is fully developed. This fact is ascertained by testing some
of the juice with a saccharometer. An ordinary portable cider-mill
answers very well for small crops; but where grapes are extensively
grown, a press adapted to this use is usually supplied. The grapes are
well pressed, to extract all the juice; for that which flows first contains
but little mucose-saccharine matter, without which the liquor does not fer-
ment freely. That substance is chiefly present in the insoluble, organized
parts and the skins, which also contain most of the acid, the resinous
extractive, and the coloring principle. Some growers let the mashed
grapes stand for twenty-four hours in open hogsheads, and do not press
them until they ferment, and the grapes rise to the surface of the liquor.
A slight fermentation in the skins is said to improve the color and aroma
of the wine; but too protracted fermentation is regarded as injurious, by
giving it a bitter, astringent taste.

Making Wine. — After the grapes are pressed, and the juice or must.

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 281

extracted, the latter is exposed to a temperature of 65° Fahr., when fer-
mentation commences. ‘The liquor is agitated by an intestine motion,
and bubbles are evolved, which buoy up the grosser matter, increase the
bulk of the mass, and form a scum upon the surface. An increase of
temperature then takes place, and the must, losing its saccharine taste,
acquires a deeper color than before, together with a vinous flavor, which
increases with the progress of the fermentation. When the fermentation
has subsided, which generally occurs in a few days, the mass returns to
its original bulk, the scum sinks to the bottom of the vessel, the liquor
becomes transparent, and is changed into wine. The constitution of the
must is liable to be greatly influenced by the culture of the grapes, their
variety and quality, and by the peculiarities of the climate in which they
are grown, as well as by the nature of the season. A cold year so much
diminishes the yield of saccharine matter, as to render the wine weak,
harsh, and ascescent; and a wet season diminishes the quantity of alco- -
hol. High winds and fogs are also injurious. When the wine has set-
tled, it is drawn off into casks, in which it undergoes further changes.
It is then racked off into other casks, in which it is subjected to the ope-
ration of sulphurizing — sulphur matches being burned in the casks, to
render the glutinous matter incapable of re-exciting fermentation. The
wine is then fined; that is, deprived of those matters which render it
turbid, and dispose it to changes of a deteriorating nature. Hither isin-
glass or white of egg is used for this purpose. The first unites with the
tannic acid in the wine, and the second with the alcohol, forming reticu-
lated coagula, which envelop and throw down those solid particles which
endanger the safety of the wine. When the wine again clears, it is ready
for use, or for bottling, which is the best mode of keeping it. The bot-
tles are corked tight, covered with sealing-wax, and laid on their sides in
tiers. If sparkling wines are desired, the old and new vintages are
mixed together in equal proportions. The cold weather of the winter
months are best suited for fining wines, as at that time they deposit most
of the matter previously held in suspension. Wines left in the wood are

liable to become sour by alternations of temperature.

Champagne Wine.—The following is the process for making this highly-
prized wine. After being pressed out the juice is allowed to ferment in
casks for a few days. When fermentation ceases the wine has a vapid
and disagreeable taste. It is then fined to as great a degree of bright-
ness as can be secured before the commencement of the bottling season,
which is usually in March. After bottling, a second fermentation is
induced by putting into each bottle a small glassful of “liqueur” (sugar-
candy dissolved in wine, and fined to brightness). However bright the

24*

282 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

wine may be when bottled, this fermentation produces a fresh deposit of
sediment, or lees. This process requires the greatest attention, the bot-
tles being closely watched, and the temperature of the air regulated to
the point necessary to check or promote fermentation. When the wine
begins to deposit a sediment, the bottles are placed, necks downward, in
long beds or shelves, pierced with oblique holes. Every day each bottle
is raised, gently vibrated, and again replaced in a position slightly ver-
tical. By this method the sediment is detached from the side of the bot-
tle, and allowed to pass toward the neck ‘Finally the bottles are placed
in an upright position, and the sediment, being then entirely deposited
in the necks, is ready for “‘disgorging.” To effect this purpose the bot-
tles are held mouths downward before a recess, and the wires confining
the corks cut, when the contained gases drive out the corks, and with
them the foul sediment. The skill of the operator is evinced by his pre-
serving all the pure wine, and parting with nothing but the foul liquor.
The bottles are then refilled from wine previously purified, re-corked, and
again stacked. When the wine is prepared for sale, a second disgorge-
ment is always necessary, and sometimes a third. When ready, the wine
gets another dose of ‘ liqueur,” composed of very pure candy dissolved
in white wine for ordinary champagne, and red wine for the pink. This
gives it an exquisite sweetness, and adds to its sparkling qualities when
opened. The quantity put into each bottle depends on the market for
which it is intended, but it is usually a good wineglassful.

Constituents of Wine.— These are: 1. Odoriferous principle, which is
due to the presence of a volatile oil, 2. Alcohol. This exists in all wines:
those containing it in small quantity are called light wines; the others
are known as strong wines. 3. Free Acids. Wines contain malic, citric,
and tartaric acids. The effervescent wines, such as champagne, which
are bottled before fermentation is completed, owe their peculiar proper-
ties to the retention, and subsequent escape when the confining force is
removed, of the developed carbonic acid gas. They are apt to become
ropy, which is prevented by the addition of pure tannic acid, or nut-galls
in powder. The tannic acid of some wines, especially that of the red
wines, as port, is derived in great part from the husk of the grape, but
partly from the seeds. 4. Sugar. This varies greatly in different wines ;
those containing it most abundantly being denominated sweet wines. 5.
Extractive. This exists in all wines, but diminishes with age. 6. Coloring
matter. When the husks are separated from the liquor before fermenta-
tion, the wine is pale, and is then called white wine; but when fermen-
tation takes place before the removal of the husks, the wine acquires a
dark hue, and is then known as red wine. The purple coloring matter,

FRUITS, .FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 283

which resides in the husks, is dissolved out by the newly-formed alcohol,
and reddened by the free acid. 7. Tartar. This substance is deposited
both in the cask and in the bottles, constituting argol and crust. The
deposition increases with the formation of alcohol, and red wines contain
a greater quantity than white wines.

THE MEDLAR.

Propagation. —It is raised by grafting, by layers, also by seed, planted
while fresh, and in the fall. ‘The seed does not germinate for some time ;
the layers will root in autumn: the pear is the best stock upon which
to graft. Tree low; fruit round, size of a plum; pulp thick, with five
stones.

Soil and Situation. — Any common soil will answer, but a well-drained,
retentive loam, suits it best. Gather the fruit in November, and spread
singly upon sand.

VARIETIES.

Blake’s Large. — A variety not very frequent, though by some thought
one of the best.

German or Dutch.— The tree is very irregular, dwarfed ; fruit large,
and, all things considered, the best of all the sorts.

Nottingham. — This is small-sized, and of a quick, pungent flavor.

Stoneless. — Not so good quality, but may be preserved better than the
other kinds.

THE MELON,

Propagation, ¢-c. — Propagated by seeds, planted in shallow hills, five or
six feet apart each way. From six tu ten seeds in a hill will suffice, and
the soil which covers them should be about half an inch deep. When up,
thin the plants to two or three in a hill, aud draw the earth up to them.
Hoe, and keep free from weeds.

Soil and Situation. — Melons require a warm, dry, rich soil, with a small
quantity of manure in each hill. They are easily raised in almost every
part of the country, though they flourish better in the Middle and Southern
States than further north.

VARIETIES.
Water-melon. — The sub-varieties of this sort are the Imperial, Caroéina,
New Jersey and Spanish ; also, the Citron. These are well-known kinds,
and are extensively grown. By many they are considered as forming a dis-

284 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

tinct species of fruit, of themselves. The first-named is a productive sort,
nearly round; color palish-green, and white; flesh pink, rich, pleasant.
The Carolina (Fig. 159) is a very popular variety; large size; oblong ;
color green and white ; flesh red ; sweet, agreeable flavor.

Fig. 159.

Musk-melon. — A delicious fruit, a native of Persia. The varieties are
numerous, easily propagated from seeds. The principal sorts are the Keising,
an egg-shaped, light straw color, highly flavored variety ; Green Hoosainee,
a superior and prolific sort ; Large Germek, round, sea-green colored, richly
flavored, and productive ; Early Canteleup, ripens early and bears well,
rather small-sized, thin skin, orange-colored flesh, juicy, and of good flavor ;
Nutmeg, green-fleshed, large, roundish oval, tender, sweet, pleasant flavor.
Besides these, the Green Citron, Palermo, Orange Canteleup, Black Rock,
and Sweet Ispahan, are good kinds, worthy of cultivation.

THE MULBERRY.

Propagation. — It may be propagated by seed, sown in a warm border,
but this mode is rarely pursued; by layers— lateral shoots obtained by
heading down the tree near to the ground ; by cuttings, having two thirds
of their length old wood, and one third yearling; or by lopping off a straight
branch, eight feet long, from a large tree, — the nearer the trunk the
better. Make it clear of every little stem, then dig a hole four feet deep,
plant the naked branch firmly in the ground, leaving around it a cavity to
hold water, when the season is dry. In two years it will bear fruit.

Soil and Situation.—It prefers a moist, deep, loamy svil, and a some
what free exposure to the south. The soil should not be cold, or wet, and
should be well drained. It may be trained against a wall, but this requires
much space.

——aa———EOooo

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 285

VARIETIES.

Red. — This is a common variety, growing wild in the United States.
The fruit is of a deep-red color, and of excellent flavor.
Black. — This variety hails from Asia Minor, but thrives in a northern

climate. The berry is large and long, black, and of a rich aromatic taste.
It is used in making wine, or cider, mixed with apples.

Remarks. — The Johnson is a new variety, and it bids fair to sustain the
high character given it by Professor Kirtland. Fruit large, oblong, of a
mild and pleasant flavor. Of the White Mulberry there are several sorts ;
not, however, so valuable for their fruit as for silk.

THE NECTARINE.

Remarks. — The nectarine is not uncommonly classed with the peach,
as a distinct variety, the peculiarities consisting in the fruit being smooth
and naked, without fur or down, and the flesh being firmer. There is no
doubt of their identity, as the seed of the peach sometimes produces the nec-
tarine, and vice versa. It is propagated and grown the same as the peach
(which see).

VARIETIES.

Boston. — Also known as Lewis’s and Perkins’s Seedling. Originated in
Boston, where it was raised from a peach-stone. The fruit is very hand-
some, of medium size, and heart-shaped ; color bright yellow and red ;
flesh firm, sweet, pleasant. One of the best varieties for general cultiva-
tion.

Red Roman.—One of the most hardy. It is a large, handsome, red

286 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

cling-stone ; color dark next the sun, the shaded side yellow ; flesh juicy, .
sweet, and vinous. Ripe in August and September. A good bearer.
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Shy
Jaune Iiisse, or Roussanne. — A small, round fruit ; skin yellow, a little
spotted with red towards the sun; skin smooth; flesh yellow, firm, sweet,
highly flavored. Ripens in September and October. Fig. 161.
Fig. 162.
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Elruge.— A fine fruit, very popular. Medium size; roundish; pale
green, deep-red next the sun; flesh palish-white, tender, juicy; ripe in
September.

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FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 287

Early Violet. —-Medium size ; green, and purplish red; flesh pale yel-
low, and pinkish ; soft, rich, sweet, agreeable flavor. Ripe last of August.
Good bearer ; very superior. :

Musk Violet.— This fruit is of large size ; color a yellowish-white, a
fine red violet towards the sun, with whitish spots; flesh yellowish-white,
firm, vinous, sweet and musky. Ripe in September. Fig. 162.

Remarks. — Hunt’s Tawney, Downton, New White, Broomfield, Pitmas-
ton’s Orange, and Duc du Tellier’s, are recommended to growers.

THE PEACH.

Propagation. —It may be propagated by planting the stone in the fall,
at a depth of two or three inches, and in one or two years they will be of
sufficient size to transplant. A common way of increasing them is by bud-
ding on the plum stock or the bitter almond; usually inoculated on the
peach stock. Plant from ten to twelve feet apart, and the land may be cul-
tivated with manured crops of corn, potatoes, vines, or pulse.

Soil and Situation. — A rich, sandy loam is the best, —a natural or arti-
ficial soil of this description. It is best not to manure much, except when
the land is also occupied by other crops, like those just mentioned.

Culture, §c.— When transplanted, they should not be very large, —
generally not more than two years’ growth. Good varieties are obtained by
budding ; grafting is thought, on the whole, to be hardly of much benefit.

VARIETIES.

Early York. — One of the earliest and most generally cultivated varieties.
Size medium, roundish, slightly oval; skin thin, somewhat dotted ; color
red ; flesh greenish-white, tender, rich, lively flavor. Ripens middle or
‘ast of August.

Red Cheek Melocoton.— A large yellow clear-stone, with a red cheek ;
flesh rich and juicy ; ripens in September, — sometimes earlier.

Gross Mignonne.— A large, round peach, flattened at the ends, divided
by a deep furrow into unequal parts ; the stem small, a small point at the
blossom end; skin covered with a thin fine down, color a clear green,
approaching to yellow, deep brownish-red towards the sun ; flesh fine, melt-
ing, juicy, delicate and white, tinged with red near the stone ; the juice is
sweet, vinous and sprightly. Ripens in August. Fig. 163.

George the Fourth. — Medium size, globular form; color pale yellow
and dark red ; flesh melting, rich, superior flavor. Ripens in September.

Coolidge’s Favorite. — Fruit large and roundish ; skin smooth, white,

288 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

with red towards the sun ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, finely flavored. Hardy,
and a good bearer, ripening early in September. Much thought of.
S

—— ee —————S

Alberge.— Size medium ; yellow skin, with dark red cheek ; flesh yel-
ow, tinged with red, melting, rich, sweet, and vinous flavor. It is deeply

Fig. 164.

indented by a seam running from the stem to the blossom end. Ripens last
of August.

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 289

Bergen’s Yellow. — Large size, round, slightly depressed ; color red and
orange, dotted ; flesh yellow, tender, rich and luscious; good bearer, and
ripens first of October. A valuable sort.

Morris White.—Fruit large, round or oval; color white, greenish,
slight purple tinge ; flesh white, tender, rich, and sweet. Ripe middle of
September.

Oldmixon Freestone. — A beautiful, large, flat peach, with a white skin
and red cheek ; flesh rich, juicy, luscious. Ripe in August.

Red Magdalen. — Medium size ; round, flat next to the stem ; color a fine

red towards the sun; flesh white, reddish near the stone, sweet and sprightly.
Ripens in September. Hardy and productive.

Crawford’s Late. — Fruit large, round, and handsome; yellow in the
shade, deep red towards the sun; flesh yellow, reddish near the stone,
iuicy, tender, rich, finely flavored. Ripens about the last of September or
first of October.

Red Rareripe. — An excellent fruit, frequently called Morris’s Red Rare-
ripe ; size quite large, round; color red and white; flesh tender, rich,
melting, highly flavored. Ripens in August.

Yellow Rareripe.— Size large, globular ; color yellow, and purplish red ;
flesh yellow, red near the stone; tender, juicy, vinous flavor. Ripens in
September.

Noblesse. — A large and handsome clingstone; skin white, with a pale
blush, and some dark brownish spots; flesh rich and highly flavored.
Ripens in September. ‘

25 T

290 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Lemon Freestone.— A pale yellow, whitish fruit; medium size; flesh
juicy, tender, melting, and highly flavored. Ripens in September.

Monstrous Cling. — A large, roundish-oval fruit; color palish-yellow.
with deep red tinge ; flesh solid, juicy, and sweet. Ripens in October.

Late Heath. — Large, oblong, terminating in a point at the head; color
rich cream-colored white, sometimes faintly blushed; flesh rich, tender,

a eae

——s

juicy, and melting. Hardy, and ripens in September, lasting into Novem-
ber. 5

Early Tillotson. — A medium size, round fruit; color yellowish shite,
red, with dots; flesh white, red near the stone, juicy, melting, excellent
flavor.

Remarks. — The varieties, besides those mentioned above, worthy to be
recommended for general cultivation, are the Jaques. White Imperial, Pres-
ident, Late Admirable, Ward’s Late Free, Golden Ball, Hyslop’s Cling, Old
Newington, Malta, Nutmeg, Belle de Vitry, Incomparable, Catharine, Chan-
cellor, and Late Purple.

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FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 291

THE PEAR.

Propagation. — The pear may be propagated by layers or suckers, but
not so readily by cuttings. These modes, however, are productive of very

. indifferent plants, and are usually rejected in favor of raising from seed, and

grafting or budding ; by seed, either for the purpose of obtaining new va-
rieties, or to produce pear stocks. But, as the varieties of the pear do not
reproduce themselves from the seed, and seedlings are slow in giving their
fruit, the pear is principally grown by scions and buds. These are placed
on pear or quince stalks, according as taste or interest may invite to early
and small crops, of fine quality, or to later and more abundant ones, of infe-
rior character. In the former case, the stem of the quince is advantageously
employed, and in the latter, that of the common pear, and without any ma-
terial difference in the operation, excepting that the feebler the stem, the
nearer to the earth should be placed the scion or bud.

The second year after budding or grafting, the plants may be removed to
the places where it is intended they shall stand.

Soil and Situation. — Though the pear-tree may be made to grow almost
anywhere, still it succeeds poorly on the north sides of hills, or in stiff, dry
soils, and still worse on those having a wet subsoil. Some of the later and
finer varieties require a deep, substantial loam, occasionally refreshed with
a dressing of well-rotted dung ; and some of the best aspects the garden can
furnish are also desirable.

Culture, gc. — Cultivated as standards and pyramids, the young trees
should be left, in a great degree, to regulate their own shape. To produce
a well-balanced tree, shorten the wood of the deficient side, and leave the
otker to itself. Trees of other forms, and intended for walls and espaliers,
require more labor and management, and a degree of both summer and
winter pruning ; the former of which consists in rubbing off all foreright,
ill-placed, spongy shoots, before they become hard, while the latter consists
in sparing all such well-placed and thrifty laterals as may be necessary for
preserving the form given to the head of the tree, and cutting away all
others close to the branch from which they grow. If the older wood be
diseased or redundant, cut it away also, or shorten it down to some healthy
and promising shoot.

When an old tree becomes unproductive, either cut down within about
two feet from the ground, and train up anew some selected shoots which
may have pushed from the stump, or take off at its base every branch which
does not want at least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, and all spurs
from such other branches as by this rule will be left. Into these retained
branches, at their subdivisions, and at different distances from their bases,

292 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

quite to their extremities, grafts must be carefully inserted, which, when
about twelve inches long, must be trained downwards between the branches.

VARIETIES.

Bartlett. — One of the most valued sorts, and grown in almost every part
of the country. Fruit large, pyramidal; color yellowish at maturity, thin,

and smooth; flesh wnite, delicate, buttery, sweet, juicy, highly flavored.
Hardy, productive, keeps well, ripens in October. It stands about number
one among all the pear-tribe.

Madeleine. — Medium size ; pale yellow, sometimes with a blush towards
the sun; form obovate, tapering to the stalk; flesh white, tender, juicy,
refined flavor ; one of the best and earliest pears; hardy, and a good bearer.

Dearborn’s Seedling. — A valuable early sort; small, symmetrical ;
color light yellow, with a few dots; flesh white, tender, sweet, and sprightly
flavor. Is quite productive, early, ripening from the middle to last of
August.

Winter Nelis.— A fine winter variety; size rather above medium;
roundish-obovate; color pale straw, slightly brown; flesh white, soft,
sugary, rich, mus‘y-flavored ; ripe in December; not very productive, but
excellent. Fig. 168.

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FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.

293

294 FARMER’S HAND-BOOR.

Seckel. — Size generally small ; form regular, round at the blossom end,
contracting gradually towards the stem; color sometimes yellow, witha
bright red cheek, and at other times a complete russet, without any blush ;
flesh melting, juicy, exquisitely flavored. Ripe in Sept. and Oct. Fig. 169.

Tyson. — A medium-sized fruit; color light straw, with brownish blotches;
flesh lightish-white, rich, sweet, fragrant; ripens in September.

Beurre Bosc. — Fruit large and long ; color light cinnamon russet ; flesh

HA ny } ] Ip

A moderately productive variety, ripening
in October and November. Fig. 170. :
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FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 295

- Bloodgood. — Large size; form oval; color dull yellow, with darkish
spots; flesh soft, melting, agreeable flavor ; early and prolific. Ripens in
August.

Flemish Beauty. — Fine large fruit; color dull yellow and brownish :

flesh yellowish tinge, sweet, tender, juicy, sugary, musky flavor. Ripe in

October. One of the best sorts, though not so much cultivated as it deserves.

Golden Beurré of Bilboa. — Medium size, oblong, roundish at the crown
contracted towards the summit; color light yellow, with russet spots ; flesh
tender, melting, rich, excellent flavor. Ripens in October, and very fruitful.

Summer Frank Real. — Medium size, obovate, thickest in the middle; —
color light yellow, with brownish-green dots; flesh melting, rich, fine-
grained, sweet, and of superior flavor. Ripens in September; hardy ;
fruitful.

Muscadine. — Medium size, roundish, symmetrical; color yellowish-green,
with dots of brown; flesh white, buttery, rich, musky flavor. Ripens in

Fig. 171.

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September, bearing abundantly, and is altogether a very valuable sort.

296 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Remarks. — There are many other varieties which might be strongly
recommended, but we can only give the names, without attempting to give a
full description. Among the Summer, or early sorts, worthy of being no-
ticed, are the Summer Melting, Stevens’s Genesee, Honey, Jargonelle, Beurré
d’ Amauiis, and the Rousselet de Rheims; of the Autumn sorts, among the
best are the Belle Lucrative, Marie Louise, Swan’s Egg, Cushing, Frederic
of Wurtemburg, Fulton, Saint Michael, Bleeker’s Meadow, and Belle et Bonne;
of the Winter sorts, the most desirable are the Colmar, Columbia, Vergou-
Jeuse, Pound, St. Germaine, Glout Merceau, Easter Beurre, Beurre Diel, and
Passe Colmar.

THE PLUM.

Propagation. — The plum, like other stone-fruit, is mostly propagated by
budding, the stocks being the free-growing plum, either raised from seed,
or, more commonly, from layers or suckers.

Soil and Situation. —The plum naturally does not grow in so light a
soil as the cherry, nor in so clayey a soil as the apple; and in a state of
culture, a medium soil, on a dry subsoil, is found to be the best. Only the
finer kinds are planted against walls.

Culture, §c. — All the varieties produce their blossoms on small spurs,
which are protruded along the sides of the shoots of one, two, or three
years’ growth, — generally in the course of the second or third year. These
spurs, if duly thinned, and, when necessary, cut in, will continue bearing
for five or six years, or longer. Standard trees require very little pruning,
peyond that of occasionally thinning out the branches, which should be done
before midsummer, to prevent the gum from appearing on the wounds.
Plum-trees against walls or espaliers are generally trained horizontauy.
Old trees may be renovated by heading in or cutting down. ‘The plum is
forced in the same manner as the peach.

VARIETIES.

Jefferson. — A superior dessert sort. Fruit large, oval, contracting
towards the stalk; color bright, deep yellow, with a purplish-red cheek, and
a whitish bloom; flesh orange, quite juicy, richly flavored. Ripens from
the middle to the last of September ; a good bearer. Fig. 172.

Green Gage. — Of this plum there are several varieties. The size, in
good soils, is large, the form round, and the skin green ; the flesh is green,
melting, juicy, and exquisitely flavored. Ripens in August and September.
Fig. 173.

Washington. — A well-known variety ; originated in New York State;
large, oval; color bright yellow, with red dots; flesh yellow, sugary, ex-
cellent eating. Hardy; shy bearer; ripens in September

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.

Fig. 172.

297

298 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Coe’s Golden Drop.— Thrifty growth; good bearer; fruit large and
handsome, oblong; color greenish-yellow, with violet and crimson dots;
flesh orange color, rich, juicy, finely flavored. Ripens in September.

Purple Favorite. — Large size; roundish; color light brown, with a
shading of purple, and bright yellow dots; flesh greenish, soft, sweet, and

Fig. 174.

excellent flavor. Ripens last of September, and bears well.

Red Gage. — Known also as Long Scarlet, and Scarlet Gage. Medium
size ; oblong, tapering towards the stalk ; color brilliant red toward the sun,
and yellowish in the shade, covered with a light purplish bloom; flesh yel-
low, rich, and sweet. Ripens first of September.

Morocco.— Medium size; round; deep purple; flesh slightly yellow,
tender, sweet, richly flavored. Ripens about the last of August.

Drap @ Or. — Cloth of Gold, by some. Small, round ; color rich, brilliant
yellow, reddish toward the sun; flesh yellow, sweet, not so juicy as some
kinds. A clearstone; ripens in August; a pretty fai bearer.

Yellow Egg.— Large size; oval, narrowing at both ends; color yellow,
whitish dots, and a thin white bloom; flesh somewhat coarse, yellow
slightly acid. Ripens in September. ‘A better cooking than eating plum.

Bleecker’s Gage. — Medium size, nearly round, very regular; color dark
yellow, with deep red spots; flesh yellow, sweet, finely flavored. Ripens
in September. The tree is hardy, productive, and the fruit much esteemed
in some parts. Fig. 175.

“fies *~

299

300 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

color reddish-purple toward the sun, palish-red in the shade, with a few
yellow specks, and a lilac bloom; flesh light brown, juicy, lively, slightly
acid. Ripens middle of August.

Royal Hative.— Also called Early Royal. Medium size; round; color
purple, with dark yellowish spots and streaks, blue bloom; flesh yellow,
tender, richly flavored. arly, thrifty, productive; ripens early in Sep
tember.

M Laughlin. — Large size, round; color brownish-yellow, with a red
tinge; flesh melting, juicy, fine flavor, though not superior. Ripens in
August.

Frost Gage.— Fruit rather small; roundish; color dark purple, with
brown dots; flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, saccharine, agreeable flavor.

Ripens in October; moderately productive: a good sort for cooking pur-
poses.

Remarks. — We have enumerated the most valuable sorts, though there
are others more adapted, perhaps, to certain localities, or preferred by ama-
teurs; such as the Jmperial Ottoman, Elfrey, Smith’s Orleans, Flushing
Gage, Red Diaper, Lombard, Black Dawson, Huling’s Superb, Blue Dwarf
Gage, and Prince’s Imperial Gage.

THE QUINCE.

Propagation, §c.— The quince is, as all know, a low, much-branched,
crowded, and irregular tree, blossoming in May or June, and ripening its
fruit in October or November. It is generally propagated by layers, but
cuttings root without difficulty. The best standards are produced by graft-
ing, at the height of five or six feet, on the pear, the thorn, or the mountain
ash.

The quince 1s generaJly planted in the orchard, in some part where the

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES ETC. 301

soil is good, and not very dry; it bears on two years’ old wood, and requires
little pruning, except thinning out irregular, crowding, or decaying
branches. ‘The fruit is kept by packing in sand or dry straw.

It is said that the quince will grow on any soil that will give good carn
or potato crops. ‘The soil should be well prepare? by ploughing and sub-
soil ploughing, and a clean furrow obtained, in the bottom of each furrow
manure being thrown. After this, planting should commence, — spring or
autumn answering equally as well. ‘The holes should be dug twice as
large as the roots of the tree, and a foot and a half deep, and to each tree a
liberal supply of good compost manure should be given. The branches
should be shortened in, one half of the last year’s growth, before the trees
are set, and the roots should be saturated with water before being covered
over with the earth. Press the earth moderately about the roots, and leave
the soil around the trunk concave, like a saucer, to catch the showers.
This will secure life and thrift to the trees.

Tn orchard planting, the trees should be put out in rows twelve feet apart,
the trees ten feet asunder. ‘This will be near enough, in good soil, pre- ,
pared as above. In three years they will bear, and will continue to do so
for thirty years. The open space between the trees may be profitably
cropped with potatoes, and so forth.

The pruning should be done in the autumn, just after the fall of the leaf.
The operation consists in cutting out as little as possible, mainly old or
decayed woo, or any quite superfluous branches.

In November, fork in around the roots of each tree five or six shovel-
fuls of fresh stable manure ; and when the spring opens, plough the ground
between the rows, and lightly stir beneath the trees. Directly after this,
give the whole a broadcast spread of salt, at the rate of ten bushels to the
acre, or just a light coat, sufficient to half conceal the ground under each
tree. The best salt for this purpose is the refuse salt of the packing-
houses.

VARIETIES.

Apple-shaped. — This is also called Orange, a well-known, favorite
variety. Fruit large, much resembling an apple in shape; color brilliant
yellow; flesh solid, and of fine flavor. A very good bearer, and much
esteemed as an excellent cooking variety, on account of the flesh becoming
soft when stewed. Fig. 178.

Pear-shaped. — Medium size, oblong, contracting towards the stem, and
in general form very similar to a pear; color yellow; flesh firmer and
yields less when cooked than the Apple-shaped. It is not so finely flavore¢
as the Apple, and not generally so much esteemed.

302 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Fig. 178.

Portugal.— This variety is more juicy, less harsh, better colored and
flavored, than the two preceding. Fruit large, oblong ; color mild yellow;
not very productive. A very superior variety, though not so much raised
as it deserves.

Remarks. — There are two or three ornamental varieties, but they are
not of sufficient importance to be described at length.

THE RASPBERRY.

Propagation, §c.— The only mode of propagation is by suckers, except
by seeds, which is only resorted to for new varieties. The suckers are
separated in autumn, either by taking up the whole plant and dividing it,
or by slipping them off from the sides and roots of the main stock. ‘They
may be planted at once where they are permanently to remain, in rows
from north to south, four feet apart every way. They will grow in any
good garden soil, but it is most prolific in fruit, and the fruit is better
flavored, in a dry, substantial soil, and an open situation. In making a
plantation, three or more suckers are allowed to each stool, and planted in
a triangle at six inches apart. ‘The plants will produce fruit the first year;

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 303

but, if this fruit, or even a third part of it, can be dispensed with, the
suckers for the succeeding year will be greatly strengthened by cutting the
stems of the newly-set plants down to within six inches of the ground.
The future treatment consists in going over the stools every year, early in
May, and selecting six or seven of the strongest suckers from each stool
for next year’s bearing wood, and destroying all the rest, unless they are
wanted for a new plantation. In autumn, as soon as the fruit is all gath-
ered, the stems which have borne it should be cut down to the ground, to
give light and air to the suckers ; but as these are liable to be injured by
the frost, they should not be pruned till the following March. They may
then be shortened to two thirds or three fourths of their length, by cutting
off the weak wood at the extremities of the shoots.

VARIETIES.

Fastolff.— This is a very superior variety, considered by many the best
Fig. 179.

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304 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

of all the reds. Fruit extra large size ; roundish-conical ; color brilliant red,
purple tinge; flesh rich, melting, finely flavored. It is not so much grown
now as it undoubtedly will be when it is better known; besides, the plants
are scarce and high-priced. It is well adapted to the United States.

Yellow Antwerp. — White Antwerp, and Double-Bearing Yellow, by some.
A large, conical berry; color lightish-yellow; flesh sweet, very pleasant
flavor. Worthy of cultivation.

American Black.— A well-known popular variety ; size rather small, in
its native growth; color quite dark; flesh rich, juicy, acid flavor.
Red Antwerp.— Also called New Red, True Red, and Howland’s Red.
Large size; conical; color pale red; flesh sweet, juicy, excellent. It is
early, productive, and ranks first-rate for eating and cooking.

Franconia — Fruit larze ; obtuse-conical ; color purplish-red; flesh firm,
rich, tart, lively. Hardy, productive; not so early as others, but superior
for preserving. Fig. 180.

Remarxs.— The White Antwerp is an excellent sort, as is also the
Cushing, and the Ohio. These, with the varieties previously described,
constitute the principal cultivated kinds, the others being generally inferior.

THE STRAWBERRY.

Propagation and Culture. —'The usual time for transplanting strawberry
plants is August. That time is chosen because they have then done bearing,
and have made offsets, if the season has been favorable, of strong plants, set
from their runners. Plantations made at this season will bear some fruit
the next summer. But, if good, vigorous plants can be obtained in May of
the preceding season, it should be planted then, as it saves nearly a year,
the plants being ready to bear abundantly the next year.

Gardeners have different habits and opinions as to trimming the plants,

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_—_os_

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 305

when they are put out. Some cut off all the old leaves, preserving only
those in the centre of the plant. Others take off the dead or decayed leaves
only, and plant with all the old healthy leaves on the plant. Many persons
cut the roots in before they put them into the ground ; —all dead substances
should be cut off, but not the roots. When the plants are put out, they
should be kept free from weeds, and the ground should be kept loose about
them. If the plants are strong, put but one to form the stools: if weak, put
two.

As regards the distance at which plants should be set, cultivators differ.
The common red strawberry, which is found in all our gardens, may be put
eight inches apart, in rows nine inches or a foot from each other, and
allowed to form a matted bed of about two feet wide, with a foot-path of a
foot wide between them. But the larger and finer sorts should be planted
in stools, in beds four and a half feet wide, with a path of fifteen inches or
more between the beds. In these beds the plants should be set, by a line,
fifteen to eighteen inches apart, both ways, taking care that they do not run
together.

The objection generally made to this mode of cultivation is, that the fruit
is exposed to injury by lying upon the ground, where it is bruised, and
covered with dirt, every time it rains. This, however, may be prevented
by a little care. Moss, or straw, or the leaves of trees, may be put around
the stools, so as to prevent the fruit from lying on the ground, and to prevent
the moisture around the plant from evaporating.

The strawberry may also be propagated by seeds; and, if sown imme-
diately after gathering, will produce plants which will come into bearing
the following year.

Soil and Situation.— The best soil is one that is light, warm, and
gravelly ; and the manure to be applied should be vegetable, rather than
animal. ‘The common practice is to manure the ground with rotten dung,
with a view to increase the size and quantity of the fruit ; but, in doing this,
the flavor of the fruit is destroyed in proportion to the richness of the soil ;
besides, high manuring produces strong, Juxuriant vines, and little fruit.
Rotten leaves, decayed wood, ashes, in small quantity, mixed with other
vegetable substances in a compost heap, will make better manure for straw-
berries than any animal substance whatever. As the vines which bear this
fruit require great moisture to bring the fruit to its proper size, the soil and
situation must not be too dry.

Forcing. — Select for this purpose, in the middle of August, a sufficient
number of the best runners, from approved kinds, to have choice from, and
plant them six inches apart, in beds, upon a strong border, in a dry and

sheltered situation. As soon as the leaves have withered, mulch them
26 * U

306 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

lightly with manure; and if very severe weather occur, protect them for a
time with straw. They must be kept, the following spring, free from weeds
and runners, removing also any flowers as they appear. ‘Towards the latter
end of May, or beginning of June, whenever dull or rainy weather may
occur, remove them carefully into forty-eight-sized pots, putting one, two or
three plants into each pot, according as the object may be, whether quality
- or quantity. Place them, when potted, in a situation where they can be
readily shaded for a time, and receive regular supplies of water, if
necessary. About the latter end of July, or early in August, these pots
will be filled with roots, when the plants must be re-potted into flat thirty-
two-sized pots, and at this time plunged in old tan or coal-ashes. ‘The best
mode of plunging them is to form beds wide enough to contain five rows of
pots, when plunged, upon a hard or gravelly surface, to prevent them root
ing through, the sides supported by slabs of the same width as the depth of
the pots, and filling them up with old tan or ashes, the plants remain here
until wanted to take in, and are easily protected from severe frosts. It will
be found an excellent plan to preserve the latest forced plants, which are
not much exhausted, for forcing the first, the next season. These, from their
long period of rest, and well-ripened buds, are predisposed to break earlier
and stronger than the others; some of them, if the autumn is moist, will be
excited, and produce flowers, which must be immediately pinched out. They
should have ‘their balls carefully reduced, and be re-potted in larger pots,
early in August, protecting them from the late autumnal rains, and from
frost.

VARIETIES.

Duke of Kent. — Fruit rather small size; roundish-conical ; color bright,
deep red; flavor tart, and moderately good. It is, on the whole, considera-
bly inferior to other sorts, but is an early ripener, — say the last of May, or
first of June.

Large Early Scarlet. —'This also is an early fruit, and superior to the

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 307

Duke of Kent. Medium size; roundish-oblong; color brilliant red; rich,
sprightly and excellent flavor. A certain and abundant bearer.
Red Wood. — An old and favorite sort ; size small ; round; color scarlet ;
flesh sweet, finely flavored. Productive, ripening in midsummer.
Black Prince. — Also known as Black Imperial. Fruit large, handsome ;
roundish ; color darkish-red ; flesh rich, finely flavored. Hardy and pro-
' lific.
| Hovey’s Seedling. —One of the finest and largest, and well suited toa
northern climate ; form roundish-conical, regular; color dark red; texture
and flavor very fine. A good bearer, ripening about the middle of June.
The fruit, with commonly good culture, weighs about a quarter of an ounce,

Fig. 182.

and is an inch and a quarter in diameter. It produces better if grown near
some variety having perfect stamens, such as the Early Scarlet, or Ross
Phenix.

Swainstone’s Seedling. — A comparatively fine sort, well thought of
by those who have grown it. Large size ; ovate-conical ; color light, shiny
scarlet; flesh compact, delicious flavor. Not over productive. Fig. 183.

Ross Phenix.— Large size to very large, with numerous seeds; form
generally more or less coxcombed or flattened, and surface uneven ; coloz
dark crimson; flavor and texture very fine for a large variety. Produc-
tive ; ripens in June, and is considered nearly equal to Hovey’s Seedling.
Fig. 184.

Prolific Hautbois. — Large size; conical; color purplish-red ; flesh rich,
juicy, tender, highly flavored. Jt bears very well, ripens early, and has as
good a reputation as any of the Hautbois variety. Fig. 185.

—

308 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Fig. 183.

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Cushing. — Fruit very large; round, some of the berries with a short
neck ; color light scarlet; flesh juicy, tender, finely flavored; good bearer,
Big. 186.

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 309

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Remarks. — The Hudson’s Bay, British Queen, White Alpine, White
Wood, Bishop’s Orange, Downton, Elion, Methven Scarlet, Boston Pine,
and Myatt’s Pine, are esteemed varieties.

MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS, NUTS, &c.

Atmonp. — There are two kinds, — the common or sweet, and the bitter,
The varieties best deserving culture are the Tender-shelled, the fruit of

310 FARMER’S HAND-BOOR.

which is small ; the Sweet, which is larger ; and the Jordan, also large and
sweet. ‘These, and all the other kinds, are propagated by budding on the
plum, and sometimes on seedling almonds for dry situations.
Buiuegerry.— A well-known dwarf bush, bearing a small berry, tender,
juicy, blue color, ripening in July and August, and much used for tarts and
puddings. Not much cultivated ; grows wild in abundance.
Butternut. — This is a species of walnut, growing in different parts of

the United States, and sometimes called Oil Nut and White Walnut. Its

wood is used for various mechanical purposes, and its bark possesses vari-
ous medicinal qualities. The fruit is eaten, but is more valuable as a
pickle. :

CurstnutT. — The true, sweet chestnut-tree thrives in any but moist or
marshy soils. It is long-lived, and grows to a great size. Its wood is hard
and durable, and used for various purposes ; the fruit is eaten raw, or boiled
or roasted; the bark, for tanning, is superior to oak. It is raised from the
seeds, planted in the fall; the second year they are transplanted, and fine
varieties are extended by grafting. The Spanish or Portuguese chestnut
succeeds well in this country, producing fruit, in about seven years, from the
seed. Its growth is more rapid than the native kind. It maybe budded
on the common chestnut, but is apt to overgrow the stock.

Fic. — The figs most suitable for a garden are the large white Genoa, the

early white, the Murray, the small brown Ischia, and the black Ischia. Figs
may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, and by ingraft-

OM Bd whe,

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 311

ing; the best mode being by layers or cuttings, which bea: the first or
second year. -A warm climate is required for out-door cultare.

Fitzert. — There are several varieties, —the Red, the White. the Barce-
lona, or Large Cob, and the Frizzled. Filberts require a deep, light, but
naturally fertile soil, without putrescent manures. They are propagated
most easily from suckers, and should be well pruned. ‘They bear in the
fourth or fifth year.

Lemon. — A small tree, with ovate-oblong leaves, pale-green, with a
winged stalk. Flowers red externally ; fruit pale yellow, with a juicy and

Fig. 188.

very acid pulp. Generally raised from seed in the Eastern countries. In
this country it may be raised at the South in the open air.

Lime. — The lime has obovate leaves on a wingless stalk, small white
flowers, and roundish, pale-yellow fruit, with a nipple-like termination.
The leaves and general habit of the plant resemble those of the lemon;
but the acid of the pulp of the fruit, instead of being sharp and powerful, is
flat and slightly bitter. The figure (190) represents the South American lime.

Ouive. — The olive grows on a branchy, low, evergreen tree, requiring a
warm climate and dry soil. The fruit is much in use for pickles, and in

_ Europe a rich oil is extracted from the pulp, the fruit being first broken in

a mill, and reduced to a sort of paste. It is then subjected to the action of
a press, and the oil swims on the top of the water in the vessel beneath. In
pickling, the fruit is simply preserved ‘n salts and water. Fig. 189,

312 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Orance. — The orange thrives only in a warm climate, though it is quite
generally raised in hot-houses in cold latitudes ; more, however, for orna-
ment and curiosity than for use. It rarely grows to any considerable height ,
has deep green leaves, and, when fruited, makes a fine appearance. May
be raised by seed or by cuttings. The principal varieties are the Bergamot,
the Blood-Red, the Saint Michael’s, Seville, China, Nice, Tangerine, Manda-
rin. . Fig, 191.

PomecranaTe. — A small, low tree, in its fortn and habits not unlike the
common hawthorn. It is propagated by layers and cuttings, and by grafting
on the common sort ; or, it may be trained in the fan manner. ‘The chiet

FRUITS. FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 313

Fig. 191.

sorts are the Sweet, the Acid, and the Subacid; besides which, there are
some ornamental varieties. The fruit is about the size of a common apple,
and is very handsome; skin hard; color yellowish-orange, with a deep-red
cheek. Grows in the Middle and Southern States Besides a dessert fruit,
it is also used medicinally.

Suetipark.— Also called Shagbark, and Hickory Nut. <A large and
towering tree, with oval leaves ; fruit roundish, sweet and relishing. The
wood is much used for different mechanical purposes.

Watnut. — Also called Madeira Nut. A tree of stately proportions,
bearing in great quantity a large-sized and superior nut. May be propa-
gated by seeds, and by grafting on the hickory nut. Excellent dessert
fruit, and makes a good pickle. The kernel is four-lobed.

WuortLeserry. — A small, dwarf shrub, comprising several varieties, and
known generally by the name of Huckleberry, and Bilberry. It produces a
round, sweet berry, much used in cooking, and also eaten raw. It grows
wild, and is seldom cultivated in gardens.

FRUIT CALENDAR.

January.— Vinery: commence forcing for fruit in June ; begin with a
temperature of 50°, and gradually increase it, the first month, to 60°.
Peach-house: commence forcing for fruit in May; begin with a tempera-
ture of 50°. Cherry-house: commence forcing with a temperature of
45°, by night. igs: plants in pots may now be placed in a vinery.
Strawberries: take plants in pots into a forcing house or pit twice in the

314 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

month. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Gooseberry Currant, and
Raspberry, if the weather is not severe. Nail and tie wall and espalier
trees.

Fresruary.— Vinery: increase the heat above that for the preceding
month. Peach-house : cease syringing when the trees are in flewer. Cherry-
house: give air at every favorable opportunity. F%g-house: commence
forcing where the trees are planted in the borders. Melons: sow seeds for
early crop. Strawberries: take into the forcing-house for succession.

Marcu. — Peach-house : remove all fore-right shoots from the trees, and,
when the fruit is set, syringe them. Cherry-house: increase the heat, after
the bloom is set and stoned. Fig-house: water freely, both at the root and
over-head. Melons: plant out irom last month’s sowing. Strawberries:
give air freely while in flower. Prune and nail Peaches and Nectarines, and
afterwards protect them with nets, or other covering. Graft fruit-trees.

Aprit. — Vinery: when the grapes are set, keep a very moist tempera-
ture, and commence thinning them immediately. Peach~house: partially
thin the fruit before stoning ; afterwards, thin to the quantity required to ripen
off ;— syringe the trees daily in fine weather, and smoke them occasionally,
to keep down insects. F%g-house: when the shoots have made three or
four joints, stop them, to cause them to produce fruit in the autumn. Mel
ons : allow several of the main shoots to reach the sides of the frame hefore
being stopped. Dzsbud Peaches and Nectarines.

May.— Vinery: keep the laterals stopped to one joint; take away all
useless shoots. Peach-house: when the fruit begins to ripen, withhold
water both at the roots and overhead, —at the same time, admit air freely
Cherry-house : raise the temperature to 70° when the fruit is swelling off.
Fig-house: as the first crop approaches maturity, only sufficient water
should be given to prevent the second crop of fruit falling off. Melons
re sulate the vines at an early stage of their growth; after the fruit is set,
put pieces of slate beneath it. Continue to disbud wall-trees; remove
their coverings when danger from frost is over, and wash the trees with
soap-suds when the fruit is set. Thin the fruit of the Apricot.

June.—Vincry: as the fruit approaches maturity, keep a dry atmosphere ;
—a few leaves may be taken off, or tied on one side, where they shade the
fruit. Peach-house: suspend nets or mats beneath the trees, and place in
them some soft material, for catching the falling fruit. Cherry-house: when
the fruit is gathered, give the trees several good washings, to destroy insects,
—the house should also be smoked. Figs: those in pots must be duly
supplied with water. Melons: ridge out late crops; give air freely to
ripening fruit. Summer-prune Vines against walls. Finally, thin Apricots.
Set traps for wasps. Net Cherry-trees.

.
:

FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 315

Juty.— Vinery: carefully avoid raising a dust when the fruit is ripe ;
give air freely. Peach-house : when the fruit is all gathered, give the trees
several zood washings over-head, and give abundance of air till the leaves
begin to decay, when the lights may be removed. Cherry-trees: if in pots,
these should now be placed in a shady situation. Fig-house : when the first
crop is gathered, water the trees liberally, to bring forward the second crop.
Melons: pay proper attention to the plants in the open air. Finally, thin
wall-fruit. Prune and tie espalier trees. Bud fruit-trees. Pot Strawberry
runners, for forcing. Mat Currants and Gooseberries, to preserve them.
Stop the shoots of vines against walls, two joints above the fruit.

Avucust. —Vinery: syringe the vines, and give them a root-watering
after the fruit is cut, to prevent the leaves decaying prematurely. Peach-
house: the light may be taken off the early house, and used for the purpose
of forwarding Grapes against walls. Fig-house: syringe the trees fre-
quently, to keep down insects. Make new plantations of Strawberries. Cut
down the old canes of Raspberries, when the fruit is gathered. Keep the
shoots of wail-trees nailed in, —displace all laterals. Stop the laterals of
vines to one joint. Continue to bud fruit-trees, as in last month.

Sepremser. —Vinery : the lights of the early forced-house should now be
left open night and day ; or they may be taken off, if repairs are required.
Peach-house : if any vacancies are to be filled up, take out the old soil, and
replace it with fresh, ready for planting next month. Protect out-door
Grapes from wasps, by bagging the bunches. Gather fruit as it ripens.
Expose wall-fruit to the sun and air, to give it flavor and color. Continue
to make new Strawberry plantations, as in last month.

Ocroser.—Vinery: as soon as the leaves have fallen from the vines,
prune them, take off the loose, rough bark, and wash them. Peach-house :
fill vacancies with trees from the walls in the open garden; take up and
plant carefully. Pot Cherry-trees for forcing. Withhold water from Fig-
trees when the fruit is gathered. Melons: keep up the heat of the beds, to
forward the ripening of the late fruit. Gather any remaining fruit. Plant
fruit-trees of all sorts. Prune Currants and Gooseberries.

NovemsBer. —Vinery: protect the border where the vines of the early
forcing-house are growing outside. Peach-house : prune and dress the trees
as soon as the leaves are fallen. Cherry-house: if the lights have been
taken off, they should now be replaced, but left open night and day, unless
the weather is severe ; the trees should now be pruned. Pot Fig-trees for
forcing. Continue to plant al] sorts of fruit-trees, as in last month. Protect
Fig-trees. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Filbert, Gooseberry, and
Currant, as in last month ; also nail and tie those against walls, and espaliers.

316 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Look over the fruit and the fruit-room. Mulch newly planted fruit-trees,
to protect them from frost.

December. —Vinery: put on the lights, if they have been removed, sc
as to protect the vines from severe frost. Peach-house: after the trees are
tied to the trellis, take away a little of the loose, dry-top soil ; slightly dig
the border, so as not to injure the roots, and add some fresh soil. _Cherry-
house: fix the trees to the trellis, and make preparations for forcing next
month. Fig-house: the frost should be kept out, and if the trees need any
pruning, it should now be done. Continue to nail and prune in mild
weather. Partially unnail the shoots of Peach and Nectarine trees. Protect
Strawberries in pots, and al] fruit-trees intended for forcing. Dig fruit
quarters where pruning is completed.

AU TNT AAU A AC

SLASHER,

The winner of many ‘‘ running” races, and the sire of many winning horses,

CHAPTER VII.

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.

THE REARING, BREEDING, DISEASES, AND GENERAL CARE OF — THE BULL— THE OX
— THE COW — SHEEP — SWINE — THE HORSE— THE ASS—THE MULE— THE
GOAT—THE DOG—IN ALL THEIR STANDARD VARIETIES; — WITH A MONTHLY
CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS.

I. HORNED OR NEAT CATTLE.

Breeding and Rearing. —'The objects to be kept in view, in breeding cat-
tle. are a form either well adapted to fatten, for producing milk, or for
labor. These three objects have each of them engaged the attention of

Fig. 192.

agriculturists ; but experience has not altogether justified the expectation
that has been entertained of combining all these desirable properties, in an
eminent degree, in the same race. ‘That form which indicates the property
of yielding the most milk differs materially from that which we know, from
experience, to be combined with early maturity and the most valuable car-
cass ; and the breeds which are understood to give the greatest weight of
meat for the food they consume, and to contain the least proportion of offal,
are not those which possess, in the highest degree, the strength and activity
required in beasts of labor. A disposition to fatten, and a tendency to yield
a large quantity of milk, cannot be united. The form of the animal most

remarkable fur the first is véry, different from that of the other ; —in place
27 * (317)

318 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

of being flat in the sides, and big in the belly, as all great milkers are, it is
high-sided and light-bellied,—in a word, the body of the animal well
adapted to fatten is barrel-formed, while that of the milker is widest down-
wards.

Procreating Age. — The age at which bulls should be employed, and the
number of seasons they should be allowed to serve, as well as the age at
which the females should begin to breed, are points regarding which prac-
tice is by no means uniform. Sometimes the bulls are pretty commonly
allowed to leap while yearlings, and, if good stock-getters, are kept on as
long as they can serve, — perhaps till they are ten or twelve years old; in
some places they are employed only three seasons, for the first time at two
years old. The females, in many instances, bring their first calf at the age
of two years, but more commonly, perhaps, not till they are a year older.

Period of Gestation. — The period of gestation with cows has been found
to be about forty weeks. Cows seldom bring more than one calf at a time.
When they produce twins, one of them a male and the other a female, the
latter, which is called a free martin, is commonly considered incapable of
procreation, though there are a few instances to the contrary.

Time of Impregnation. — The most desirable period for putting cows to
the bull is midsummer, in order that they may be dropped in the spring,
and have the whole of the grass season before them. Where no regular
system is followed, and cows are sent to the bull merely because they are
in heat, calves will be dropped at all seasons; but excepting when the fat-
ting of calves is an object of importance, it is probably the most advan-
tageous time, as the calves, having all the grass season before them, become
sufficiently strong for enduring the change to a less agreeable food in the
ensuing winter. A calf newly weaned seldom thrives well during that
period, unless it is pampered with better food than usually falls to the share
of young animals. By midsummer the cows are readier to take the bull
than at any other season, and will bring calves in proper time. If a cow
goes till after May before she calves, the calf will be too weak the winter
following, and the dam will not be so ready to take the bull again, but will
often grow barren.

Rearing. —'The mode of rearing calves differs in different places. The
best method, according to some, is this: The calves suck a week or a fort-
night, according to their strength ; new milk in the pail, a few meals ; next
new milk and skim-milk mixed, a few meals more ; then, skim-milk alone ;
or porridge, made with milk, water, ground oats, &c., and sometimes
oil-cake, until cheese-making commences, after which, whey porridge, or
sweet whey, in the field; being careful to house them in the night, until
‘warm weather sets in. This method of suckling is not, however, free from

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 319

objection ; and, in the ordinary practice of rearing calves, it is held to be
a preferable plan to begin at once to teach them to drink from a pail. The
calf that is fed from the teat must depend upon the milk of its dam, how-
ever scanty or irregular it may be; whereas, when fed from a dish, the
quantity can be regulated according to its age, and various substitutes may
be resorted to, by which a great part of the milk is saved for other purposes,
or a greater number of calves reared on the same quantity.

When fed from the pail, two gallons a day, for about three months, is
enough ; but after it is three weeks old, it is best to give substitutes. When
reared with skim-milk, it should be given about as warm as cow’s milk
when first drawn. If over-cold, the calves will purge, which, however,
may be remedied by putting two or three spoonfuls of rennet into the milk.

When dropped during the grass season, calves should be put into some
small home-close of sweet, rich pasture, after they are eight or ten days
old, not only for the sake of exercise, but also that they may the sooner
take to eating grass. When they are dropped in the winter, or before the
return of the grass season, a little short, soft hay or straw, or sliced turnips,
should be laid in the trough or stall before them.

The treatment of young cattle, from the time they are separated from
their dams, or able to subsist on the common food of the other stock, must
depend upon the farm on which they are reared. In summer, their pasture
is often coarse, but abundant ; and in winter, all good breeders give them
an allowance of succulent food along with their dry fodder. The first win-
ter they have hay and turnips; the following summer, coarse pasture ; the
second winter, straw in the fold-yard, and a few turnips once a day, in an
adjoining field, just sufficient to prevent the straw from binding them too
much ; the next summer, tolerably good pasture, and the third winter, as
many turnips as they can eat, and treated as fatting cattle.

Castrating. —There used to be a strange difference of opinion among
farmers as to the time when this operation should be performed. In some
places it is delayed until the animal is two years old: but this is done to
the manifest injury of his form, his size, his propensity to fatten, the quality
of his meat, and his docility and general usefulness as a working ox. The
period which is now pretty generally selected is between the first and third
months. The nearer it is to the last of the first month, the less danger
attends the operation.

Mode.— Some persons prepare the animals by the administration of a
dose of physic ; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best
suits their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be
taken that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly prac-
tised was simple enough :—a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as

320 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

possible around the scrotum. ‘The supply of blood being thus completely
cut off, the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suf-
fered to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or were
cut off on the second or third day. It is now, however, the general prac-
tice to grasp the scrotum in the hand, between the testicles and the belly,
and inake an incision on one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth
to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle, and long enough to
admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and is
seen hanging by its cord.

The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string:
around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through the
cord half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He, how-
ever, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating,
considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vessels
and prevent after hemorrhage ; and therefore saves a great deal of unneces-
sary torture, by including them alone in the ligature, and afterwards divid-
ing the rest of the cord. The other testicle is proceeded with in the same
way, and the operation is complete. ‘The length of the cord should be so
contrived that it shall immediately retract into the scrotum, but not higher,
while the ends of the string hang out through the wounds. In the course
of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds wil}
speedily heal. It will be rarely that any application to the scrotum will be
necessary, except fomentation of it, if much swelling should ensue.

A few—but their practice cannot be justified —seize the testicle as soon
as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord, and tear it
out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly con-
tracts, and very little bleeding follows ; but if the cord breaks high up, and
retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation has sometimes ensued, and
the beast has been lost. This tearing of the cord may be practised on small-
er animals, as pigs, lambs, and rabbits, as their vessels are small, and there
is but little substance to be torn asunder ; but, even there, the knife, some-
what blunt, will be a more skilful and humane substitute. This laceration
should never be permitted in the castration of the calf or the colt.

The application of torsion, or the twisting of the arteries by means of a
pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them, promises to supersede every
other mode of castration, both in the larger and the smaller domesticated
animals. ‘The spermatic artery is exposed, and seized with the forceps,
which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance ; the vessel
is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissues, the forceps are turned
round seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. It will be found per-
fectly closed ; a small knot will have formed on its extremity « it will retract

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 321

into the surrounding substance, and not a drop more blood will flow from
it; the cord may be then divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel
arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron or of the
wooden claws, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary in the
castration of the calf.

Fattening. —The common method of fattening Calves is, to allow them
to suck, as by this method the object is probably not only sooner, but more
effectually, attained, than by any other means. The period necessary varies
from five to nine weeks, —the time being much shorter where milk is very
valuable. Another method is, to give them the milk to drink, morning and
evening, warm from the cow; the quantity being increased according to
their age and strength. In whatever way they are managed, they should be
kept in pens in a close house, and well littered, kept clean, and enjoy a due
quantity of fresh air. Meal, linseed boiled into a jelly, and such like arti-
cles, are also given to calves while fattening.

cei wh

8 A SS SS SSS

The food on which Cattle are fatted is grass in summer, commonly on
pastures, but sometimes on herbage cut and consumed in feeding-houses o1
v

B22, FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

fold-yards ; and in winter, on turnips, along with hay or straw, oil-cake,
carrots, potatoes, &c. ‘The hay or straw is much more beneficial when cut
by one of the machines now used for that purpose.

The age at which cattle are fatted depends on the circumstance of their
being employed in breeding, in labor, for the dairy, or solely for the
butcher. In the latter case, the most improved breeds are fit for the sham.
bles when about three years old, and very few of any large breed are kept
more than a year longer. As to cows and working oxen, in most instances
the latter are put up to feed after working three years, or in the seventh or
eighth year of their age. In general, it may be said that the small breeds
of cattle are fattened on pastures, though sometimes finished off on a few
weeks’ turnips; and large cattle, at least in some parts, are chiefly fatted
in stalls or fold-yards, by means of turnips, and other like substances.

HOW TO JUDGE OF CATTLE FOR VARIOUS OBJECTS AND PURPOSES.

The Bull. —'The head should be rather long, and the muzzle fine; eyes
lively and prominent; ears long and thin; horns wide; neck rising with a
gentle curve from the shoulders, and small and fine where it joins the head ;
shoulders moderately broad at the top, joining full to his chine or crops
and chest backwards, and to the neck-vein forwards; bosom open ; breast
broad, and projecting well before his legs; arms, or fore-thighs, muscular,
and tapering to his knee; legs clean, and very fine-boned ; chine and chest
so full as to leave no hollows behind the shoulders; plates strong, to keep
his belly from sinking below the level of his breast; back, or loin, broad,
straight, and flat; ribs rising one above another in such a manner that the
last rib shall be rather the highest, leaving only a small space to the hips
or hooks, the whole forming a round or barrel-like carcass ; hips should be
wide-placed, round, and a little higher than the back ; the quarters, from the
hip to the rump, long, tapering gradually from the hips backward, and the
turls or pott-bones not protuberant ; rumps close to the tail; tail broad, well-
haired, and in a horizontal line with his back.

Bulls should be constantly well fed, and kept in proper enclosures.

The Ox.— The head ought to be rather long, and muzzle fine; counte-
nance calm and placid; horns fine; neck light, particularly where it joins
the head; breast wide, and projecting well before the legs; shoulders
moderately broad at the top, and the joints well in, and, when the animal is
in good condition, the chine so full as to leave no hollow behind them;
the fore flank well filled up, and the girth behind the shoulders deep ;
back straight, wide, and flat; ribs broad, and the space between them and
the hips small; flank full and heavy; belly well kept in, and not sinking
lew in the middle; hips round, wide across, and on a level with the back

so ta | it HA
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tie taketh wih
hi Wii L

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My, |

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS 323

itself; the hind quarters, that is, from the hips to the extremity of the
rump, long and straight; the rump points fat, and coming well up to the
tail; the twist wide, and the seam in the middle of it so well filled, that the
whole may very nearly form a plane, perpendicular to the line of the back ;
the lower part of the thigh small; tail broad and fat towards the top, bi
the lower part thin; legs long and strong ; teet and hoofs broad and hardy ;
and, when the animal is in fine condition, the skin of a rich and silky
appearance.

Fig. 194.

Skeleton of the Ox.

a, The upper jaw bone. m, The ligament of the neck, and its

b, The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. attachments.

c, The lachrymal bone. n, The atlas.

d, The malar, or cheek bone. o, The dentata.

e, The frontal, or forehead bone. p, The orbit of the eye.

J, The horns, being processes or contin- | g, The vertebra, or bones of the neck.
uations of the frontal. r, The bones of the back.

g, The temporal bone. s, The bones of the loins.

h, The parietal bone, low in the tempo-| ¢, The sacrum.
ral fossa. u, The bones of the tail.

ti, The occipital bone, deeply depressed | » +20, The haunch and pelvis
below the crest or ridge of the head. | x, The eight true ribs.

j, The lower jaw. y, The false ribs, with cartilages,

k, The grinders. z, The sternum.

1, The nippers, found on the lower jaw| 1, The scapula, or shoulder-blade.
alone.

324 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

2, The humerus, or lower bone of the | 10, The two smaller pasterns to eacn foot

shoulder. 11, The two coffin bones to each foot.
3, The radius, or principal bone of the | 12, The navicular bones.
arm. 13, The thigh bone.
4, The ulna, its upper part, forming the | 14, The patella, or bone of the knee.
elbow. 15, The tibia, or proper leg bone.
5, The small bones of the knee. 16, The point of the hock.
6, The large metacarpal or shank bone. | 17, 17, The small bones of the hock.
7, The smaller or splint bone. 18, 18, The metatarsals, or larger bones
8, The sessamoid bones. of the hind leg.

9, The bifurcation at the pasterns, and | 19, 19, The pasterns and feet.
the two larger pasterns to each foot.

The Cow. — Wide horns; head and neck thin ; dewlap large ; full breast ;
broad back; large, deep belly; the udder capacious, but not too fleshy ;
the milk-veins prominent, and the bag tending far behind, teats large and
long ; buttocks broad and fleshy, tail long and pliable, legs in good propor-
tion, and the joints short. ‘To these may be added a gentle disposition, and
free from vicious tricks.

Age of Cattle. —'This is determined by the teeth and horns. At the end
of about ten years, they shed their first four teeth, which are replaced by
others, larger, but not so white ; before five years, all the incisive teeth are
renewed. ‘These teeth are at first equal, long, and pretty white; but, as the
animals advance in years, they wear down, and become unequal and black.
These animals likewise shed their horns at the end of three years,
and are replaced by other horns, which, like the second teeth, continue.
The manner of the growth of these horns is not uniform, nor the shooting
of them equal. The first year,—that is, the fourth year of the animal’s age,
—two smal] pointed horns make their appearance, neatly formed, smooth, and
towards the head terminated by a kind of button. ‘The following year this
button moves from the head, being impelled by a horny cylinder, which,
lengthening in the same manner, is also terminated by another bution; and
so on, for the horns continue growing as long as the animals live. ‘These
puttons become annular joints or rings, which are easily distinguished in
the horns, and by which the age of the creature may be easily known, —
‘counting three years for the point of the horn, and one for each of the joints
or rings. The cow is useful for twenty years, — much longer than the bull.

Names of Cattle at Different Ages. — A young castrated male, <fter the
first year, is called a stot, stirk, or steer; at five years old, an ox. A
female, after the first year, is called an heifer, or quey ; at five years old, a
cow; and afterwards a castrated female is called a spayed heifer or cow
Bullock is the general term for any full-grown cattle, male or female,
fat or lean

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 325

DIFFERENT BREEDS.

Nattve.—Our best cattle are more or less mixed with standard breeds ;
but of which no record has been kept. We here give a specimen (Fig.
195) of an almost perfect cow. This cow gave thirty-eight and a half
quarts per day.

In the Eastern and Middle States the ruling qualities of the North De-
von stock are quite perceptible. The cattle average well. The oxen are
good under the yoke and the cows good milkers. By means of this
stock and imported bulls the cattle of the Western and Middle States are

Fig. 195.

1 a
uif Nit :

326 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

being vastly improved. In the West, the short-horned animals have been
generally preferred, but the Durhams are now coming into vogue very exten-
sively, on account of their superior adaptedness to travel to the Eastern
markets without sensibly deteriorating in weight and quality. ‘The English
Herefords are now being paid particular attention to, as they are supposed to
be well calculated for the Western graziers; the West Highland breed is
also recominended.

Drvon.— The true Devon cattle are gentle, agile, and peculiarly adapted
to active lavur. ‘Their shoulders have that obliquity which enables them to
lift freely their fore extremities; and their quarters behind are relatively
long, a characteristic connected with the power of active motion. Their
bodies, too, are light, and their limbs long, muscular to the hock and knee.
and below these joints sinewy. ‘They have the faculty of muscular exertion
in a high degree, trot well in harness, and will keep pace with a horse in
the ordinary labors of the farm.

Devon Bull. —'Vhe figure below represents a fine specimen of a genuine

Fig. 196.

\ LH i)
Hh, tide ; \( i Yi Y,
LEN HAN
(i ‘i ! i We py
by Ail
\ AO NIGH)

Devon bull. The horn of the Devon bull ought to be neither too low nor too
high, tapering at the points, not too thick at the root, and of a yellow or
waxy color. The eye should be clear, bright, and prominent, showing mucb
of the white, and it ought to have around it a circle of a variable color, but

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 327

usually a dark orange. The forehead should be flat, indented, and small,
the purity of the breed being very much determined by the latter character-
istic. The cheek should be small, the muzzle fine, the nose clear yellow,
the nostril high and open, the hair curled about the head, and the neck quite
thick. Excepting in the head and neck, the form of the bull does not
materially differ froin that of the ox, but he is considerably smaller. There
are some exceptions, however, to this rule, as the two figures which follow
indicate, these representing the offspring of the bull exhibited in Fig.
196.

. a ; VES <—
a hy Mar\nmn0 iS ae

Devon Ox.— The head of the Devon ox is quite small, with a great
breadth of forehead; clean and free from flesh about the jaws; prominent
eye; vivacious countenance ; long and thin neck; light in the withers; the
shoulders a little oblique; breast deep; bosom open and wide; fore-legs
wide apart ; the point of the shoulder rarely seen; no projection of bone, as
in the horse, but a kind of level line running on to the neck ; skin, notwith-
standing the curly hair, exceedingly mellow and elastic; color a blood red,
which is usually indicative of purity of breed, though there are many
animals, of great excellence, of a chestnut hue, and even bay brown. Those
of a yellowish hue are said to be subject to steal (diarrhea). The preceding
figure is an accurate likeness of an ox beginning to fatten, but his character-

328 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

istic points not yet concealed. The cut below is that of a working Devon
ox, embodying almost all the good points which have been enumerated.

A selection from the most perfect animals of the true breed, —the bone
still small and the neck fine, but the brisket deep and wide, and down to the
knees, and not an atom of flatness all over the side, — or one cross, and only
one, with the Hereford, and that stealthily made, — these have improved the
strength and bulk of the Devon ox, without impairing, in the slightest
degree, his activity, beauty, or his propensity to fatten.

Fig. 199.

Devon Cow. —'There are few things more remarkable about the Devon-
shire cattle than the comparative smallness of the cow. . The bull is a great
deal less than the ox, and the cow almost as much smaller than the bull.
This is somewhat of a disadvantage, on the whole, a roomy cow being very
desirable for breeding But, though small, the Devon possesses that roundness

i i” BD ieee

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 329

and projection of the last two or three ribs, which renders it more roomy
than a careless examination would lead one to suppose. She is particularly
distinguished for her full, round, clear eye, the gold-colored circle around
the eye, and the same color prevailing on the inside skin of the ear; coun-
tenance cheerful, the muzzle orange or yellow, but the rest of the face having
nothing of black, or even white, about it; jaws free from thickness, and the
throat free from dewlap. The points of the back and the hind quarters dif-
fer from those of other breeds, having more roundness and beauty, and being
free from most of those angles by which good milkers are sometimes dis-
tinguished.

The following is a portrait of a Devon cow, rising four years old. With

Fig. 200.

regard to size, she is a favorable specimen, and it will be seen at once how
much more roomy and fit for breeding she is than even her somewhat
superior bulk would at first indicate. She is, perhaps, in a little better
condition than cows generally are, or should be, in order to yield their full
quantity of milk.

Remarks. — The qualities of the Devon cattle may be referred to three
points — their working, fattening, and milking.

Where the ground is not too heavy, the Devonshire oxen are unrivaled
at the plough. They are quick, active, docile, and capable. They are

usually taken in to work when*about two years old. If kept idle till five
28 *

830 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

or six years of age, they will be stinted in growth. At six to sia and a
half, they reach their full stature. At nine years, or older, they decline in
value.

With regard to their disposition to fatten, they have few rivals here
They do not, indeed, attain the great weight of some breeds, but, in a given
time, they acquire more flesh, and with less consumption of food; and their
flesh is beautiful in its kind, pleasing to the eye, and to the taste.

For milking, the Devons are inferior to several other breeds. The milk
is good, yielding more than an average proportion of cream and butter, but it
is deficient in quantity. Some, however, deny that the latter is true.

DurHAM, ORSHORT-HORN.— Theshort-horned, sometimes called the Dutch
breed, is known by a variety of names, such as the Holderness, the Tees-
water, the Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland, and others. Applying the
points of judging live-stock to the short-horns, it is found, that for quantity
and well-laid-on beef, the short-horned ox is quite full in every valuable

Fig. 201.

part. In regard to quality of beef, the fat bears a due and even predominat-
ing proportion to the lean, the fibres of which are fine and well mixed, and
even marbled with fat, and abundantly juicy. The fine, thin, clean bones of
the legs and head, with the soft, mellow touch of the skin, and the benign
aspect of the eye, indicate in a remarkable degree the disposition to fatten ;
while the uniform colors of the skin, red or white, or both combined in

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 331

various degrees, mark distinctly the purity of the blood. They are at once
distinguished from any of the other breeds by their additional size, and their
more square and massy form. ‘Their bones are exceedingly small, compared
with the size of the animal; their skin possesses that peculiar touch so
characteristic of a good feeder ; they arrive early at maturity ; and, further,
they combine the valuable qualities of milking and fattening in an unsur-
passed degree.

Fig. 201 exhibits one of the truest specimens of Short-horned bulls, and
may be relied on for its faithful delineation.

The Short-horned cow gives a large quantity of milk, and is, in all
respects, a superior animal. Having given some account of the excellent
qualities distinguishing the breed generally, we close with presenting a life-
likeness of one of the female species.

Fig. 202.

—
Ss =
= =

HererorpsHire. — The Herefordshire white-faced breed may be thus dis-
tinguished: 'The countenance cheerful, pleasant, open; the forehead broad ;
eye full and lively; horns bright, taper, and spreading ; head small; chap
lean; neck long and tapering; chest deep and full; bosom broad, and pro-
jecting forward; shoulder-bone thin, flat, full, and mellow in flesh; loin
broad ; hips standing wide, and level with the chine ; quarters long, and wide
at the neck; rump even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor
standing high and sharp above the quarters; tail slender and neatly haired ;
barrel round and roomy ; the carcass throughout deep and well-spread ; ribs
broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth, even
barrel, — the hindmost large and full of length ; round bone small, snug, and

332 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

not prominent; thigh clean, and regularly tapering ; Jegs upright and short
below the knee, and hock small; feet of middle size; flank large; flesh
everywhere mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on
the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs; hide mellow, supple, of a middle
thickness, and loose on the neck and huckle ; coat neatly haired, bright ana
silky ; color a middle red, with a bald face, characteristic of the true breed.
They fatten to a much greater weight than the Devons, and at an early age.
They are far worse milkers, however, than the latter, but will thrive and
grow fat where a Devon would scarcely live. A cross of the Devon and
Hereford will often improve each other, the former acquiring bulk and
hardihood, and the latter a finer form and activity.

The Hereford cow (Fig. 203) is apparently a very inferior animal.
Not only is she a poor milker, but her form is defective, —small, delicate,
and ill-made. She is very light-fleshed when in common condition, and

beyond that, while she is breeding, she is not suffered to proceed; but when
she is actually put up for fattening, she spreads out, and accumulates fat at
a most extraordinary rate.

The Hereford ox fattens speedily at a very early age, and it is therefore
generally more advantageous that he should go to market at three years
old than be kept longer to be employed as a beast of draught.

—

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.

Ayrsuire.—This breed hasbeen much improved.

It is short in the leg,

Fig. 204.

333
the neck a little thicker at the shoulder, but finely shaped towards the head ;
SAC Was

Sy
a
ZS Sez

Y GE
toe eS
_—~ Mi

ey A ne

the horns are smaller than those of the Highland breed, but clear and
smooth, pointing forwards, and turning upwards, tapering te a point.

es?

334 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

They are deep in the carcass, but nct round and ample, and especially not
so in the loins and haunches. Fig 204 represents an improved Ayrshire
bull.

It is said that the Ayrshire farmers prefer their dairy bulls according to
the feminine aspect of their heads and necks, and wish them not round
behind, but broad at the hook-bonés and hips, and full in the flanks.

The Ayrshire cow is a valuable dairy cow, the quantity of milk yielded
by her being very great, considering her size. Five gallons daily, for two
or three months after calving, may be considered as not more than an aver-
age; three gallons daily will be given for the next three months, and one
gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. Three gallons and a
half of this milk will yield about a pound of butter ; thus fully establishing
the reputation of the Ayrshire cow, so far as the dairy is concerned. Fig.
205 represents one of these beautiful animals.

New Lercesrrer. — This breed may be substantially distinguished by the
following characteristics: The fore end long, but light to a degree of ele-

Fig. 206.

gance ; neck thin; chap clean; the head fine, but long and tapering; eye
large, bright, and prominent; the horns of the bulls comparatively short,
ef the oxen extremely long, as are, also, those of the cow, and most of them

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. soo

hang downward by the side of the cheeks; shoulders fine and thin as to
bone, but thick as to flesh, without any protuberance of bone; girth small,
compared with the short-horns and middle-horns ; chine quite full when fat;
loin broad, hip quite wide and protuberant ; quarters Jong and level, the
nache of a middle width, and the tail set on variously; round bones small,
but thighs fleshy, tapering; legs small, clean, somewhat long; feet neat,
middling size; the carcass as nearly a cylinder as the natural form of the
animal will allow ; ribs standing out full from the spine ; belly small; hide
middling thick ; color various, — the brindle, the finch-back, and the pye, are
common. The fattening quality, when the breed is in a state of maturity,
is indisputably good. As grazier’s stock, they rank high. The principle
of the utility of form has been strictly attended to. As dairy stock, their
merit is less evident. As beasts of draught, many of them are sufficiently
powerful, and are more active than some other breeds used for the plough,
or on roads; but their horns form something of an objection to such use of
them. Fig. 206 is that of a New Leicester cow.

Remarxs. — Some of the other most noted breeds, which are coming into
extensive favor in this country, are the Holderness, the Galloway, the Sus-
sex, the Alderney, the Suffolk, and the Kyloe; these, however, we do not
design to notice in detail, but shall close our notes on neat cattle with a few
remarks on some of the characteristics and general management of

DAIRY COWS.

Qualities. — We have already expressed, in the preceding pages. the
general opinions entertained as to the adaptedness of particular breeds for
dairy purposes.

Where butter is the main object, such cows should always be chosen as
are known to afford the best and largest quantities of milk and cream, of
whatever breed they may be. But the quantity of butter to be made from
a given number of cows must always depend on the size and goodness of
the beasts, the kind and quantity of food, and the distance of time from
ealving. The form of animals that are best fitted to arrive at early maturity
and secrete fat, differs in some respects from that which indicates a dispo-
sition to secrete and yield milk. A dairy cow, like a feeding animal,
should have a skin soft and mellow to the touch,—should have the bac
straight, the loins broad, the extremities small and delicate ; but she need
not, as in the ease of the feeding animal, have the chest broad and prom-
inent before. She should rather have the fore-quarters light, and the hind-
quarters relatively broad, capacious, and deep; and she should have a large,
well-formed udder. There should be no breeding in-and-in, as in the case
of a feeding stock. The purpose in rearing cows for the dairy is not to pro-

336 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

duce animals that will arrive at premature age, but such as are hardy and —
of good constitution. By long attention to the characters that indicate a
disposition to yield milk, the breed of Ayrshire has become greatly more
esteemed for the dairy than other animals much superior to them in size and
feeding qualities.

Feeding. — With respect to the manner of feeding dairy cows, the must
economical, perhaps, is feeding them entirely on green forage during the
summer, and on roots in winter. But, as to the effect of food, notwith-
standing all that may justly be said respecting the nutritive properties of
peculiar roots and artificial grasses, no food can excel that of good natural
pastures, for milch cows; for not only do they yield a greater quantity of
mailk when fed on pastures, but the flavor of grass butter may always be
distinguished, by its superior richness and delicacy, from that which has
been made from milk produced from soiling in the house. This, however,
should not deter the farmer from feeding his dairy stock in that manner, for
the difference in the quality of the produce is not so great as to counter-
balance the many advantages resulting from a due extent and proper kind
of soiling. But in a country where cultivation has not been carried to its
fullest extent, and a considerable proportion of the land is necessarily
devoted to the production of grass, the cows may be kept, with great
advantage, on the pastures, during summer.

Keeping in Good Condition.— Dairy cows should be kept onbiautly 3 in
good condition. When they are suffered to fall off in flesh, particularly in
the winter season, it is impossible that they can be brought to yield a large
quantity of milk, by getting them into better condition in the summer
months. When cows are lean at the period of calving, no managemen’
afterwards is capable of bringing them to afford, for that season, anything
near the proportion of milk they would have yielded if they had been sup-
ported in proper condition during the winter. Food of the most nourishing
and succulent kinds should, therefore, be regularly given, in suitable pro-
portions, in the cold, inclement months, and they should be kept tolerably
warm, and well supplied with pure water. It will be equally conducive to
the health of cows as to that of feeding cattle, to comb them regularly, and
to make such other arrangements as are conducive to cleanliness.

Milking. —In summer, the cows are milked in the field, or they are
driven gently home to their stalls, and milked there. ‘The cows, when in
full milk, should be milked three times a day, and, at other times, twice in
the day will suffice. On the physiological principle of the secretions of
animals being increased in proportion as the secreted fluid is more frequently
withdrawn, the propriety of frequent milkings is apparent, in order to
increase or maintain the supply of milk produced by cows. There can be

SOU

FINE JERSEY. COW.

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 337

little doubt but that, by accustoming the secretory organs to more frequent
action, such a habit may be established in them as will afford a larger pro-
portion of milk in a given time. But, in order to effect this in the most
yerfect manner, it will be necessary to have the cows highly fed, to observe
the greatest regularity and exactness in the hours of milking, and to be
careful that every drop of milk is drawn away each time. If any milk is
allowed to remain in the udder after the operation of milking, it is well
ascertained that the cow will yield a smaller quantity at the next milking.
A milch cow is usually considered in her prime at five years old, and
will generally continue in as good milking state until ten years old, or
upwards, depending much on the constitution of the animal, — some cows,
‘ike other animals, exhibiting symptoms of old age sooner than others.
Ascertaining the Quality of Milk.— The value of milk, and the propor-
tion of either butter or cheese that it produces, depends much upon its
quality. As the milk of some cows is so greatly superior to that of others,
where regularity is observed, it is important that the milk of each should
be placed by itself until its quality is ascertained. This is effected by
churning it separately ; but a more expeditious and convenient method is to
ascertain its strength by means of the lactometer, an instrument which we
have described in the chapter on the dairy, and a cut of which we annex.

Grazing Cattle. — Fattening cattle for sale being an important branch
of agricultural economy, the farmer should regulate his system of grazing
by his knowledge of the nature and fertility of his pastures. Those beasts
only should be selected, which show a disposition to fatten on the smallest
ainount of food, and it will be advisable to pasture them on lands suited
to their different breeds. It is a bad practice to transfer cattle from rich
to inferior soils: the reverseyshould be the rule; and graziers vould do

29 Ww

338 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

well by selecting their purchased stocks from lands of a poor quality
Water has also its effect upon cattle, which, if removed from pastures
well supplied with sweet water to those not well furnished with that re-
quisite, will not only fail to improve, but will rapidly deteriorate. In
order to render the grazing of cattle profitable, they should be gradually
changed from inferior pastures to others covered with more choice grass :
cattle being very fond of variety, they will eat only the best portions of
the grass, fill themselves speedily, and lie down to chew the cud and
digest their meal at leisure. This mode of feeding tends greatly to in-
crease of fat. It is important not to overstock the pastures, and strong
cattle should be separated from weaker ones; as the more powerful ani-
mals frequently drive the others around the field, much to the injury of
the grass, and the annoyance of non-resisting animals. If there are no
trees in the field, the erection of rubbing-posts will prevent the cattle from
injuring the fences by using them for that purpose.

Many highly intelligent graziers recommend a division of the grazing
farm into four enclosures; each containing a nearly equal quantity of
land. One of these enclosures being kept entirely free from stock until
the grass has attained its full growth, the prime, or fattening cattle, are
then turned into it, in order that they may cull the choice food ; the second
best then follow these; and the young stock next in order. Thus the
entire herd will feed over the four enclosures in succession — the first
being kept free from stock until ready for the best cattle — the second is
appropriated to the best cattle until they are sent to No. 1—the third is
pastured by the second best cattle until they are turned into No, 2—and
the fourth is devoted to the young cattle until they are sent to No. 3.
Sheep follow after the young cattle, and crop the grass down to a close
and even sward; after which this enclosure is shut up until again ready
for the prime cattle. It is likewise advisable to divide the fattening en-
closure by hurdles, by which means the stock may be confined to one-
half of it at a time, and thus be continually furnished with good, fresh
pasture.

Winter stall-feeding. —Two modes are practised by farmers: 1. Con-
finement in stalls; 2. Confinement in small yards, with open sheds at-
tached. Each shed, together with its yard, has a sufficient capacity for
two oxen, and is surrounded by a well-built wall, against which, in the
yard, the feed-troughs are placed. If the cattle are confined to the stall,

they require to be fastened with care the first time; and they must be.

watched for a fime to prevent them from injuring themselves by strug-
gling to get loose, as is occasionally the case. They must also be well
and comfortably littered, and the feed placed before them in a low manger.

pee. > ii

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 339

Early each morning the dung must be removed from the stalls, and the
mangers be filled with roots first, and subsequently with well-cured hay.
At noon, feed as before; again, before night sets in; and, if practicable,
previous to retiring for the night, stir up the litter, examine whether all
is right, and put more food before them. By pursuing this plan, the
cattle will be well fed, and, during the intervals between meals, will lie
down and rest. Currying has also a beneficial effect upon cattle, and
their hides should be carefully freed from vermin and other impurities.
Comfortable accommodations, good ventilation, regularity in feeding, as
well as in the amount of food given, good and abundant litter, attention
to cleanliness, and an unstinted supply of pure water, are all desiderata
in the fattening of cattle, which cannot be too carefully attended to by
those who have charge of them. Nothing conduces so much to the fatten-
ing of animals as perfect quiet; and every means should be used to pro-
mote rest, ease, and contentment. Formerly, cattle were fattened entirely
on hay; but this having been found not only a tedious, but also an ex-
pensive mode, oil- and rape-cake have been largely substituted, and almost
every variety of esculent. The ruta-baga and sugar-beet are, however,
preferable to any others of the root-tribe, not only on account of the
quantity of contained nutriment, but also because they are relished by
the cattle, which thrive upon them in an extraordinary degree. The
modern practice of cooking roots for the use of cattle, is much facilitated
by the employment of various steaming apparatus. Many experiments
have been made to test the relative nutritive qualities of raw and cooked
food. The results prove that cooked roots and grain are not more nou-
rishing than when fed to cattle in the raw state; but cooked food being
more easily digested, the animals fed on it are enabled to consume a
larger quantity, and in this way benefit by its use. Ruminant animals,
however, profit less from being fed on it, than do those of the non-
ruminant class, as the horse, the hog, &c. The use of grain will, in a
‘reat measure, depend upon the market-price; but the practice cannot
be recommended, unless called for by peculiar circumstances, such as a
scarcity, or a diseased condition, of esculent roots.

II. SHEEP.

Rearing, gc. —'The ewe may breed when fifteen or eighteen months old,
and at the same age the ram may also be employed to the extent of forty or
fifty ewes, and, when older, to seventy or eighty.

The young lambs should be brought forth at a time when there will be 3
sufficient supply of food for the dam to enable her to yield a copious supply
of milk; and also for the lambs, as they advance in growth. The usual

340 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

period is from the middle of October to November, in which case the ewes
will begin to lamb soon after the beginning of March. No preparation is
accessary, except, for a few weeks before, to place the ewes on somewhat
better pasture than usual.

The period of lambing having commenced, the attendant should carefully
observe every ewe that appears to be in labor. ‘The attendant should not
be in haste to render assistance, until the strength of the ewe appears to be
declining. If she is to be driven to the fold, it must be done gently as pos-
sible. Before assistance is given, first see that the foetus is coming in a
proper position, which is with the head crouched between the fore-legs ; if
wrong, it must be turned to the proper position. In the case of twin lambs,
the one which is least advanced must be put back, and the extraction of the
other assisted. If the foetus be dead, it should be extracted immediately.

The keep of sheep after lambing, when rich pastures, or other kinds of
grass lands, cannot be reserved, should consist of turnips, or other kinds of
green food. ‘The ewes should also have a dry, quiet, and sheltered pasture,
protected from the severity of the weather. High feeding should be allowed
them, but not while pregnant.

Castrating. — Castration of the male lambs should be performed when
they are ten days or a fortnight old. They should be in perfect health, and
the weather fine, but not warm. An incision is made into the scrotum on
each side, through which the testicles are successively protruded, and they
are taken away by severing the spermatic cord.

Weaning. — The period of weaning differs according to the locality of
the farm, and the quality of the pasture. In a mountainous situation, and
where the land is inferior, weaning often takes place when the lambs are
not more than three months old, for it requires all the intermediate time io
the beginning of winter to bring the ewes either ready for the ram or fatted
for the market. The time is generally from the first to the middle of July,
and the lambs are simply separated from the ewes. It is necessary to take
away a portion of the ewe’s milk, at intervals, to prevent injurious disten-
sion of the udder. Dry them by degrees.

After being weaned, the lambs are named according to their sex and age.
The males are called hoggets, or hogs, the rams being termed tup-hogs, the
castrated males wether-hogs, and the ewes ewe-hogs.

It is important that the lambs be put into a good pasture in the summer,
to make up for the loss of the milk of the dam. When the grass begins to
fail, they are to be supplied with turnips plentifully, which, with hay, are
to be their food during winter.

Shearing. — This is an annual operation, usually taking place at the end
of May or first of June, — the precise period depending on the state of the

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 341

animals, those in a high condition being ready sooner than those that are
lean, — the wool coming off readily at that time, when plucked, this being
the proper criterion. About a week previously to shearing, the animals
are to be washed, to free the wool from all impurities. Everything being
prepared, a sheep is handed to the first operator, who seizes it and pulls it
into the water, and immediately turns it over on its back, holding the arm
of the fore-leg with the left hand, and grasping a portion of the wool at the
side of the head with his right hand, turning the sheep over from side to
side, at the same time pulling it gently backwards and forwards from and to
him, at every successive turning ; the wool waves up and down in the direc-
tion of the length of the body, and swirls round the body, first in one
direction and then in another ; the sheep is then handed to another operator,
who repeats the process and hands the animal to another person, and he who
handles it last examines the fleece.

After being washed, the sheep are put into a clean grass field; the fleece
will soon dry, after which the sheep may be shorns though it is better to
wait about a week, in order that the oil may be brought again into the
wool, without which the latter loses its peculiar lustre with the loss of the
volk.

When the sheep are to be shorn, they are put into some enclosed space ;
a winnow-cloth, or large sheet, of some kind, is spread on the floor, and
fastened down at the corners. ‘The shearer then sets the sheep on its rump,
in which position it is kept by resting against his legs. In this position, the
wool is removed from the head and neck, and the operator afterwards clips
in a circular direction from the belly to the back ; the animal is then laid on
its side, and kept down by the leg of the shearer, who clips the fleece all
around the back. All dirty portions of the wool about the tail and belly ought
to be removed by the shears, and kept by themselves. The outside of the
fleece is folded inwards, beginning with the side, and narrowing the whole
fleece into a stripe of about two feet in breadth. This stripe is then rolled *
firmly up, from the tail-end towards the neck, the wool of which is
stretched out and twisted into a rope, and wound around the fleece, to give
it a cylindrical shape. The clippings are steeped in water and washed by
the hand, and afterwards dried in the sun.

In using the shears, they should be held close to the sheep, with their
points a little elevated ; every stroke should be short and narrow, to make
a clean clip. Keep the shears sharp by a whetstone.

Different names are again applied to the sheep after being shorn. They
are now shearlings, shearling-wethers, shearling-ewes, and shearling-tups
or rams; the wethers are also called dinmonts, and the ewes gimmers.

The ewes, or gimmers, are kept on the pastures during the second season
a0*

342 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

and such as are intended for breeders receive the ram at the proper season.
The wethers, or dinmonts, are fit for the butcher soon after being shorn.
But it is only in the case of the more improved breeds being reared, and the
supply of food of the last description, that the dinmonts are thus disposed
of at this early period. More frequently they are kept on the farm for
another winter, when the management is the same as during the first vear.
The dinmonts, however, are frequently sold fat before they have completed
the entire winter’s feeding ; and when not disposed of at this period, they
are sold after being a second time shorn.

The details of the rearing and treatment of sheep on arable farms have
now been given at length. But frequently, instead of the animals being
produced and fattened on the farm, the operations of the farmer may be
either confined to breeding sheep and disposing of them before they become
fat, to pass into other hands before they come to the butcher, or they may
be confined to fattening sheep, always purchasing the stock from the
breeder. In situations, however, where the breeding and feeding of sheep
can be carried on with equal advantage, they may, with economy, be com-
bined on the same farm.

Animals for the Market. — But instead of rearing all the animals to the
age of one or two years, the lambs are sometimes disposed of fat during the
first summer. In this case, they are fattened merely on the milk of their
dams. In certain cases, however, the ewes are made to produce the lambs
at those seasons which are found to suit the adjacent markets best, and the
lambs are fed in the house.

Food. — Grass in summer, and turnips and hay in winter, form the chief
food of sheep, and they are seldom difficult to procure in favorable
situations. In the absence of turnips, the different roots cultivated on the
farm may be substituted with advantage. Salt should always be supplied
to sheep.

Sheep in Mountainous Sections. —The management of sheep in mountain-
ous sections sometimes differs, in some respects, from that described. The
food is here not so abundant, nor so good, and the sheep must be of hardy
constitution. ‘The period of putting the ram to the ewes is also somewhat
later, in order that the lambs may not be brought forth until the season is
advanced, and the herbage well sprung up. During the winter, when not
too severe, the sheep are kept on the pasture, and in stormy weather they
have an allowance of hay, and roots when they can be produced. The
operations of lambing, castrating, weaning, and shearing, are the same in
both cases.

Smearing. — The operation of smearing may be regarded as peculiar to
the mcurtain races of sheep. ‘This is performed with a view to destroy the

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 343

vermin, and protecting the animals from the inclemency of the weather. It
is. however, injurious to the wool, but doubtless destroys vermin, and
prevents diseases of the skin. The usual substances employed are tar and
butter,—a gallon of the former to six pounds of the latter, — which is
sufficient for twenty sheep. Combinations of tar with other substances are
also employed, such as oil, soda, and even potatoes boiled and pounded, the
effect of which is to render the tar more easy of separation from the wool.
Whatever composition is used, it should be rubbed in streaks on the skin,
without daubing the wool. ‘The usual time of doing it is in the first part
of November.

Signs of Good Hedlth.— The appearances which show the sheep to be in
good health are, a rather wild or lively briskness; a brilliant clearness in
the eye; a florid, ruddy color on the inside of the eyelids, nostrils, and
gums; a fastness in the teeth; a sweet breath; a dryness of the nose and
eyes; easy and regular breathing; coolness in the feet; dung properly
formed ; fleece firmly attached to the skin, and unbroken; and the skin
exhibiting a florid-red appearance. A discharge from the nose or eyes
indicates having taken cold.

Improvement of Breeds.—In selecting a breed of sheep the farmer
should be governed by the nature of his pasture-lands, and the means he
has at command for supplying them with prepared food. A mountain
breed will not prove profitable upon a valley farm; nor will a lowland
breed of sheep thrive well on hill-side pastures. After selecting a breed,
the next point for careful attention is the propagation of lambs; for
which purpose the best sheep in the flock should be selected. Early
maturity and a disposition to acquire fat are of importance when meat
only is the object sought; but these qualities are of secondary import-
ance to the wool-grower, who looks rather to the fine texture of the fleece,
the hardy nature of the animals, and their healthy condition. Breeding-
in should be practised only to a moderate extent, as, when carried tvo
far, it tends to make the sheep sickly and delicate. When unduly prac-
tised, Nature rebels against it; the sheep cease to produce wool in suffi-
cient quantity, the ewes stop giving milk, and the rams lose their viri-
lity. Crossing with the best breeds of another stock is the only remedy
in cases of this kind; which is a matter of easy accomplishment, since
there is a plentiful supply of superior rams in all of the breeds now
reared,

Form.—Proneness to acquire fat at an early age may be distinguished by
certain external characteristics, as may also the wool-bearing qualities,
which are of such great importance to the breeder. A disposition to
fatten is indicated by general rotundity of form, small bones, well-arched

344 FARMER’S HAND BOOK.

ribs, and broad, flat, and straight back and loins. The body should be
proportionally larger than the limbs, the chest well set, the belly straight,
the head small, and the ears thin. The legs should be fleshy to the
joint; thence tapering downward, delicate, and covered with short hair;
the wool soft-feeling, thick, and growing well forward on the face, but
not covering it; the skin soft, and elastic to the touch; the face and fore-
head thickly covered with short hair; and the eyes clear and bright.

Age may be ascertained by examining the front teeth, which are eight
in number, and make their appearance during the first year, when they
are all of small size. The following year the two middle teeth are super-
seded by two others of larger size. During the tlird year, two other
small teeth, one on each side, are shed, and their place filled by two large
ones. At this time there are four large teeth in front, flanked by two
pointed ones. The fourth year the large teeth are six in number, and
but two small teeth remain — one at each side. These disappear during
the fifth year, when all the front teeth are large. Signs of wear are
visible early in the sixth year; and during the seventh year (sometimes
even earlier) they begin to fall out, or are broken off.

Wool, and its Characteristics.— Fineness of pile first attracts attention,
and is of greater importance than any other property, with the exception
of quantity. The wool covering the ribs, back, shoulders, and side of
the neck, is considered the finest; and next in order is that clothing the
upper parts of the legs and thighs, and extending up to within a short
distance of the haunch and tail. A coarser kind of wool covers the
upper part of the neck, the throat, breast, belly, and lower parts of the
legs. Temperature, pasture, food, and general management exert a great
influence on the fineness and quality of wool; and the value of the sheep
is in proportion to the equal quality of the wool on all parts of its body.
Soundness and elasticity are likewise very important properties, more
especially in long wool, in which they are indispensable requisites. Fine
wool has a perfectly regular fibre, and is free from coarse hairs; and
fineness of staple is always accompanied by an equal growth of wool
over all parts of the animal, and marked by an absence of those shaggy
spots observable on poor and half-fed sheep. Felting on the back of the
sheep very much injures the quality of wool; and, though this is a fre-
quent occurrence among heavy breeds, yet it is more commonly the result
of neglect and a scanty supply of food. Another desirable quality is
softness of pile, which, in the opinion of manufacturers, cannot be too
soft and silky, provided the strength remains unimpaired. This quality
measurably depends on the fineness of the fibre; and as the yolk imparts
richness and pliability, as well as nourishment, to the wool, it necessarily

et -

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 34é

exerts some influence on the softness of the pile. The color of wool,
though of minor is yet of no trifling importance ; for the purchaser never

« loses sight of the qualities of purity and perfect whiteness.

VARIETIES.

TARTAR.—This is a valuable breed, for sometime introduced into
the United States. They are a medium-sized animal, with agreeably-
expressive faces, prominent noses, ears drooping forward, and covered
with short, but very fine, glossy, silken hair. The principal value of this
animal consists in its remarkable powers of procreation — the ewes pro-
ducing lambs twice each year, and from three to four, and not unfre-
quently five ata time. The quality of the mutton being of the highest
order, devoid of woolly or other disagreeable taste, and possessing a
delicacy resembling venison, with their capacity for furnishing lambs at
all seasons of the year, make them of great value to those whose chief
object is to breed for the butcher.

Lone-wooLep. — The long-wooled sheep are of the largest size. The

Fig. 208.

New Leicester or Dishley breed stands deservedly at the head of the list
and, indeed, for symmetry of shape, early maturity, and attaining to a com

346 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

siderable size, it stands unrivaled. The preceding figure is a very fair
specimen.

This breed owes its origin to the late Mr. Bakewell, a cetebrated breeder,
of Dishley, in Leicestershire, England. It is inferior, in size and quality of
wool, to many of the larger varieties, but for early maturity and aptitude to
fatten it has not been surpassed. It should have a tapering head, long, and
hornless; eyes prominent, and a quiet expression; ears thin, long, directed
backwards; neck full and broad at its base, gradually tapering towards the
head, particularly bare at the junction with the head; the neck seeming to
project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible
deviation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the pole; breast
broad and full ; shoulders broad and round,—no uneven or angular formation,
no rising of the withers, no hollow behind the situation of these bones ; arm
fleshy throughout, even down to the knee; bones of the leg small, standing
wide apart, —no looseness of skin about them, and rather bare of wool ;
chest and barrel deep and round; ribs forming a considerable arch from the
spine ; the barrel ribbed well home ; carcass gradually diminishing in width
towards the rump; quarters long and full; legs medium length; pelt mod-
erately thin, soft, elastic, covered with a good quantity of fine, white wool.
The principal races of this breed are the New Leicester, the Lincolnshire,
Teeswater, Devonshire Notts, Romney Marsh, and the Cotswold. Fig.
209 is a portrait of one of the latter.

Fig. 209.

Lp im

i i Y 1% y
" ik i, { i \
it ) Lap) i) vA
Ts VAN
I

Wig

Suort-wooLep. — The short-wooled varieties of sheep are very numerous,

_—

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS, 347

and are also distinguished generally by smallness of size. They are
hardier than the larger sheep, yet, with few exceptions, not so well calcu-
lated for the exposed and mountainous sections. ‘The Cheviot and South-
Down are very generally diffused varieties of this class, both kinds being
hornless. Fig. 210 is a South-Down ewe and lamb, of the most improved
sort.

Fig. 210.

The points in this valuable breed are principally as follows : — The head
should be neither too long nor too short; the lip thin; the neck moderately
long, thin next to the head, and tapering towards the shoulders; breast
wide and deep, projecting forward before the fore-legs, which indicates a
good constitution and disposition to feed; the shoulders not too wide
between the plate-bones, but on a level with the chine; chine low and
straight from the shoulders to the tail; the ribs should project horizontally
from the chine, as the animal will then lay its meat on the prime parts; the
sides high and parallel; rump long and broad; the tail set on high, and
nearly on a level with the chine; hips wide; ribs circular, and _barrel-
shaped; legs neither very long nor very short; the bones moderately fine.

Buack-racep.— The Black-faced or Heath sheep are distinguished by
black faces and legs, and large and spirally-twisted horns. The female is
however, frequently hornless. The fleece is long, coarse, and shaggy,
extending over the forehead and lower jaw. This is ar active and hardy
race, capable of subsisting in the most exposed situations, producing mutton
of excellent quality, though not'generally fattened till four or five years old.

348 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Their wool is not so valuable as that of the Cheviots. Fig. 211 represents
one of the black-faced race.

Fig. 211.

Merino. — This celebrated and most useful breed are distinguished by
the fineness and felting quality of their wool, and the weight yielded by
each sheep, — the ease with which they adapt themselves to the climate, the
readiness with which they take to the coarsest food, their gentleness and
tractability. Their defects are their unprofitable and unthrifty form,
voracity of appetite, a tendency to barrenness, neglect of their young, and

Fig. 212.

inferior flavor of the mutton. The wool, lying closer and thicker over the
body than in most other breeds of sheep, and being abundant in yolk, is
sovered with a dirtv crust, often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 349

small in the bone; the breast and back narrow, and the sides somewhat flat ;
the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is
carried on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are comparatively
large, curved, more or less spiral; head large, but forehead rather low.
A few of the females are horned, but, generally speaking, are destitute.
Both male and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair
on the torehead and cheeks; the other part of the face has a pleasing and
characteristic velvet appearance. Under the throat there is a singula~
looseness of skin, which gives them a remarkable appearance of throati-
ness, or hollowness in the pile; the pile, when pressed upon, is hard and
unyielding, on account of the thickness with which it grows upon the pelt,
and the abundance of the yolk detaining all the dirt and gravel which fall
upon it, though, when examined, the fibre exceeds in fineness, and in the
number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the world
produces. Fig. 212 is a representation of the Merino breed.

Ill. SWINE.

Breeding and Rearing. —These animals arrive early at maturity. The
sow is fit to receive the male when little more than eight months old, and the
latter is capable of propagating at the same early period; but neither of
them should be allowed to be used for the purposes of breeding until they
have completed their first year, and the male should be admitted only to a
limited number of females for some time after. The period of gestation in
the sow is about sixteen weeks; and the number of young produced at a
birth varies from five to ten or twelve, sometimes even to eighteen or
twenty, and two litters are produced in the year, or even five in two years.

She is ready to receive the male soon after the birth of her young, but the
period of impregnation should be regulated by that at which it is desirable
the young should be produced. ‘The winter is a bad season. The periods
of impregnation should be about the beginning of October and April, as the
young will then be produced in February and August, so that the last litter
will have gained full strength before the approach of winter.

‘Lhe pregnant sow should be separated from the herd, but should not be
entirely confined. The period of bringing forth will be generally known by
the animal carrying straw in her mouth to make her bed some time previous ;
and she must then be well littered with short straw, for, when profusely
littered with long straw, the young pigs are liable to be injured or killed by
the mothers, while they are nestling unperceived under the straw.

Treatment of Dam and Young.— The young animals, being extremely
tender, are liable to be destroyed immediately after their birth by the mo-

350 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

tion of the dam; and, to guard against this, they should be watvhed, and
the young ones removed from her as they are brought forth. During the
first and second day after the birth of the young, or until they acquire
strength, they should be removed from the dam, and only occasionally
admitted to suck. While nursing, she should be well fed, and the pigs
‘ aecustomed to feed from a trough on milk, whey, or any liquid food,
mixed with a little meal or bran.

Castrating. — The males may be castrated when about a month old ; and
a like operation, though not absolutely necessary, may be performed, at the
same age, on such of the females as are not intended for breeding.

Weaning. — The period of weaning is regulated by the manner in which
the young pigs have been fed; and, when they have been liberally supplied
with food, it need not be deferred longer than six or seven weeks ; for, when
delayed beyond this, the sow will be in low condition as the time of bringing
forth her young again approaches.

Treatment after Weaning. — When weaned, the young pigs should be
fed three times a day on nutritious and chiefly farinaceous food, combined
with milk or whey; and, in a few weeks, they will consume the ordinary
roots cultivated upon the farm. In some instances, the young pigs are dis-
posed of while they are sucking, especially when the number brought forth
is greater than the dam can perfectly support ; and, when intended for being
killed, they are then termed porkers, or roasters.

The young pigs, after being weaned, are sometimes allowed to go at
large through the pastures, and have to depend on these chiefly for their food.
In this case, they frequently do great injury to the fields The best plan is
to confine them in pens, allowing them occasionally to go through the feed-
ing-yard, to pick up any refuse food scattered through it : and, in addition to
this, supply them with a little green food, as clover during summer, and
turnips or potatoes during winter.

Food. — The food of swine may be of a more varied character than that
of any other animal. Every kind of animal refuse, as that of the dairy and
kitchen, is eagerly consumed by them ; — roots, raw or boiled ; different
kinds of seeds; brewers’ grains, and the wash of the distillery. It is im-
portant that they should be liberally and regularly supplied with food. They
ought to be fed three times in the day; and the troughs should be emptied
before a fresh supply is given, and washed out occasionally, so as to keep
them clean. The hog delights to wallow in the mire, but prefers a clean
bed at night. The food should be varied —liauid and solid.

Disposition of the Carcass. —'The flesh of the hog may be disposed of in
two ways. The one is to yield pork, and the other to produce bacon. In

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 351

the former case, the age seldom exceeds six or eight months and in the
latter, ten or twelve.

When the substances employed in fattening have been juicy rather than
nutritious, the flesh will be much improved by feeding with bran-meal, °
mixed with the other food, for some time previous to killing the animals.
This is more essential in producing bacon, as it tends to harden the flesh,
and render it of that mellow firmness which constitutes the essential property
of fine hams and bacon. Some time previous to the period of killing the
animal, therefore, the food may consist of about two thirds of steamed pota-
toes, or other roots, and one third of ground pease, barley, oats, or bran,
enlarging the quantity of farinaceous food as the animal fattens.

An important matter in the management of swine is the preservation of
the flesh after the animals are killed. In the case of pickling pork, the
carcass is cut in pieces, and packed. A solution of salt in water is prepared,
strong enough to swim an egg, which is to be boiled, and, as soon as it has
cooled again, it is poured on the pork, so as to cover it. The vessel is now
closed up, and the pork ready for market.

In the making of bacon, the hams or legs are separated from the flitches
or sides, as close to the latter as possible without injuring their appearance.
The body is then separated from the head, and cut longitudinally in the
direction of the back-bone, and then transversely between the second and
third ribs. The hams and flitches are then laid on boards, sprinkled with

Fig. 213.

eA \ \ S .
NW IV

saltpetre, and covered with salt, — better if rubbed in by the hands. Put them
in a cool place, and in this staté let them remain about a week, after which

352 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

they should be turned, and an additional quantity of salt sprinkled over
them. In about two or three weeks from the period of the first salting, they
may be hung up in the chimney of the kitchen, or in a smoke-house, to dry.
In Westphalia, and some other places noted for the flavor of the hams pro-
duced, sugar is commonly used in curing, in the proportion of about one
pound of sugar to three of salt, and two ounces of saltpetre. The sugar
assists in preserving the meat, rendering its fibre mellow, and corrects the
extreme pungency which is often occasioned by the too free use of salt. In
every case, after the hams and flitches have remained hanging a sufficient
time to dry them, they are taken down, and packed up in seeds from the mill,
or sawdust, in which they remain until required for use. The proper period
for curing bacon is during the cold weather.

Jn order that those who are unacquainted with the anatomy of the pig may
possess the means of informing themselves in regard to that subject, we give
the preceding skeleton, explained as follows : —

The Head. b. Humerus — the round shoulder bone.
A. Maxilla inferior, vel posterior — lower | °- Sternum — the breast bone.

jaw. d. Ulna — the elbow.
B. Dentos the teeth. e. Radius — the bone of the fore-arm.
Go Ocsaa oe ibamacabuonee: J. Os naviculare — the navicular bone.
D. Maxilla superior, vel anterior — upper | > &- Phalanges, vel ossa pedis— the first
jaw. and second bones of the foot.
BlOa froutis —thetrantal Banc h. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis— the bones
F. Orbiculus— the orbit or socket of the of the hoof.
eye.
G. Os occipitis — the occipital bone. Hind Extremities.
The Trunk. i. t. Pelvis (ossa innominata)—the haunch
H. Atlas — the first vertebra of the neck.| bones. . ,
I. Vertebre colli, vel cervicales—the|J- J- Os femoris — the thigh bone.
vertebraeloftheneck: k. k. Patella — the stifle bone.
J. Vertebra dorsi, vel dorsales — the ver-|/- /- Tibia — the upper bone of the leg.
tebretiomihe backs m. m. Tarsus (one of which is the (N)
K. Vertebre lumborum, vel lumbales — os calcis) — the hock bones.
the vertebra of the loins. n. n. Os naviculare — the navicular bone.

L. Ossa coccygis — the bones of the tail. | ®- 9- Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis)—
the first digits of the foot.

p- p. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis)

a. Scapula— the shoulder-blade. —the second digits of the foot.

Fore Extremity.

VARIETIES.

Cuina.— The Chinese breed was originally obtained from Asia. ‘There
are two distinct species, the white and the black; the former better shaped

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 353

than the latter, but less hardy and prolific. Both are small-limbed, ears and
head fine, round in the carcass, thin-skinned, and the head so imbedded in
the neck, that when quite fat, the end only of the snout can be seen. They
seldom reach a very great weight ; they are rather difficult to rear, and the
sows are bad nurses. Their flesh is somewhat tender for bacon, has rather
too large a proportion of fat, and their hind-quarters are so deficient in pro-
portion to the size of the other parts, that they cut up to considerable disad-
vantage for hams. But their great aptitude to fatten, an the extreme
delicacy of their meat, — which, when young, is unrivaled, — render them

very valuable.
Fig. 214.

4
hi iy)

The black race are thrifty, ana tatten on a comparatively small quaniity
of food ; which valuable properties are so desirable that, notwithstanding
their smal] size, they are crossed with other breeds to a very considerable
advantage, producing several kinds possessing properties superior to those
of the parent stock. They are also very prolific.

There is also a mixed breed, patched with black and white, — some with
thick, pointed ears, like the true species, which they otherwise resemble in
form, while in others the ears are rounded, and hang down.

Berxsuire. — The Berkshire hog is of a reddish-brown color, with black
spots ; the head well placed, with large ears, generally standing torward,

though sometimes hanging over. He is short-legged, small-boned, and of a
Bn
Ps

354 FARMER’s HAND-BOOK.

rough, curly coat. Their bacon is very superior, and the animals attain ta
& great size.

\ \\ Waa \

Pid
AR WW \' v \\
\aa

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. S55

The crosses of this breed are so numerous, that any attempt to distin-
guish them, and particularize as to their merits, would be futile. Fig. 215.

Surrotx.— The Suffolk breed has been long in repute as a hardy and
prolific species, though generally of only moderate or rather small size ; and
when crossed with either the Berkshire or Dishley breed, produces animals
which are in very general esteem. They fatten quickly, but their shape 1s
not considered altogether valuable for making bacon. Fig. 216 is an ex-
ample of an animal of this breed.

Wosurn.— The Woburn breed is white, mixed with various colors, well-
formed, round in the carcass, small limbed and headed, hardy, and very
prolific, and so kindly disposed to fatten, that they are said to have attained
to nearly twice the weight of some other hogs, within the same given period
of time.

Siamese. — The widely-diffused breed known by this term, on account of
its origin, is worthy of notice in this place. The animals are small, and
have acylindrical body, with the back somewhat hollow, and the belly
trailing near the ground, on account of the shortness of the limbs. The

bristles are soft, the color is usually black, and the skin externally of a rich
copper-color. The ears are short, small, and somewhat erect. The ani-
mals are not over-hardy or prolific, and the females do not yie'd the same

356 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

guantity of milk; but they arrive very soon at maturity, they fatten on a
smal] quantity of food, and their flesh is white and delicate.

IV. THE HORSE.

Rearing and Breeding. —In the breeding of the horse, it is important
that the parent, of either sex, be free from disease ; for the diseases, as well
as the good properties, of the animal, are transmitted to their offspring. In
breeding, attention should be paid to the female as well as to the male
parent, else disappointment may result with respect to the form and proper-
ties of the progeny.

A mare is capable of receiving the male at an early age; but it is an
error to commence breeding from any mare before strength has been ac-
quired, and her form developed, — which will rarely be sooner than at three
or four years of age. ‘The mare comes into season in spring, and goes with
young about eleven months, although with an irregularity, even to the ex-
tent of several weeks on either side of that period. The most convenient
time for her receiving the male is in May, that she may foal in April, when
the herbage begins to spring. From the time she receives the male til] that
of foaling, the farm mare may be kept at her usua] work. She will give
notice of the period of foaling, by the extension of the udder, and other
symptoms, and she may then be released from work. In general, little
difficulty or danger attends the parturition of the mare. She rarely requires
assistance ; but, should difficulty really arise, from the particular position
of the foetus, it is well to obtain the assistance of a practised hand, lest the
mare be injured by unskilful and violent means. As soon as the mare has
foaled, she should be placed with her young, either in a house, or, what is
better, in a pasture-close, with a shed to which she may go at all times. It
is necessary, at this period, to supply her with nourishing food. It is bet-
ter that the mother be kept ina field, and permitted to suckle the young
undisturbed. But yet she may be put; without danger or injury, to mod-
erate work, within a short time after foaling. For a time, the foal should be
shut up in a house during the hours of work, which then should not be too
long ; but, after the colt has acquired a little strength, it may be permitted
to follow the mother even when at work in the field. Many, indeed, do
not approve of this practice, on account of the chance of accidents to the
foa.. But accidents seldom occur, and the foal has an opportunity of taking
milk more frequently, is the better for exercise, and becomes useil to the
objects around it. In nine days or more after foaling, the mare will be
again in season, and may receive the male.

Weaning.—In six months, the foal is to be weaned, which is done merely
by separating it from the dam. It is then best put in a field. The mother

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 357

is then put to her ordinary work, and treated as usual. At the time of
weaning, and during all the period of its growth, the foal should be liber-
ally fed. Bruised oats, meal, or any farinaceous food, may be given to it.
It is not necessary or proper that it be pampered, but it is important to its
growth and vigor tl at it be supplied with sufficient food.

Castrating. —The male foal intended for agricultural purposes must be
eastrated, and the best time for the operation is at one year old. Some do
it before weaning, but it is better that it be delayed till the masculine form
of the animal has been more developed. ‘The details of this operation must
be left to the experienced practitioner. Little improvement has been effected
on the old mode, except the opening of the scrotum, and the division of the
cord by the knife, instead of the heated iron.

Training and Management of Colts. —If the colt be intended for the sad-
dle, it is well that from this period it be accustomed to gentle handling by -
the person who feeds it, to render it docile and good-tempered. Anything
like harshness is to be carefully avoided. The colts are kept in their pas-
tures during the summer, and when these fail before winter, the animals
may be put into a yard with sheds, and plentifully littered with straw.
They may receive straw for half the winter, and hay towards spring, when
the straw becomes dry and unpalatable ; and turnips, or any green food,
should be supplied freely in the winter. ‘They should have a piece of
ground on which they may run in winter, on account of their health and the
state of their feet. As early in spring as the pastures will allow, they are
to be turned out to graze in the fields, where they are to be kept during
summer, and in the following winter treated in the same manner as before.
They are also to be treated in a similar manner in the following summer and
winter, after which, that is, when three years old, they will be in a condition
to be broken in ; and, if draught-horses, employed in the work of the farm,
they may be taken up for training even in the third autumn of their age,
though at this period the work should be very gentle.

A farm-horse usually receives little training ; but the colt should have
a bridle with an easy bit put upon him for a few days, and allowed to
champ it for an hour or two at a time, ina stall. The harness being then
put upon him by degrees, he may be trained to the different labors required
of him. In general, the farm-horse, working with his fellows, is easily
made obedient. But when a farm-horse is four or five years old before he
is put to work, or if he isa stallion, or if he shows any vice, he should
have more training. And if a valuable horse, and fit also for the saddle
and the carriage, the more training the better. In every case, gentleness
and kind treatment are to be strictly observed in the management of the
colt. He is first to be taught his duties, and corrected afterwards only

858 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

when necessary to secure submission, fear being the feeling which con-
trols the animal. The farm-horse demands, neither in the training nor
in the feeding, that nicety which is required in the case of the horse de-
signed for rapid motion or irregular labor. He must be kept in good
order, never to be worked beyond his power, and never be allowed to

fall, in condition, below the work which he is to perform.
Food.—The food of the horse consists of herbage, or green forage ; of
dried forage, as hay and straw ; of various farinaceous substances, as oats,

EXPLANATION OF SKELETON OF A HORSE.

A, Cervical Vertebre,
B B, Dorsal Vertebre,
C, Lumbar Vertebre,
D, Sacrum,

E E. Consygeal Bones,
F F, Ribs,

G, Costal Cartilages,
H, Scapula,

I, Humerus,

K K, Radius,

L, Ulna,

M, Carpus or Knee,

1, Scaphoid,

2, Senilunar,

3, Cuneiform,

4, Trapezium,

5, Trapezoid,

6, Os Magnum,

7, Uneiform,

8, Pisiform,

N N, Large Metacarpal
or Cannon.

O, Small Metacarpal or
‘Splint Bones,”

P P, Sesamoid Bones,

QQ. Phalanges, [Bone,

1, Os Suffraginis or Pastern

2, Os Corone,

3, Os Pedis,

1, 2, 3, Phalanges,

R, Pelvis,

1, eum,

2, Puvis,

3, Ischiam,

S, Femur,

T, Patella,

U, Tibia,

V, Fibula,

W, Hock,

1, Os Calcis,

2, Astragalus,

3, Cuneiform Magnum,
4

sy Medium,
: os Parvum,
6, Cuboid,
3, 6, Cubo Cuneiform,
X, Large Metatarsal,
1, 2, 3, Phalanges,
Y, Small Metatarsal,
Z, Head,
1, Inferior Maxila,
2, Superior do,
8, Anterior do,
4, Nasal Bone,
5, Malar, 6, Frontal,
7, Parietal,
8, Occipital,
9, Lachrymal,

10, Squamous \ Temporal.
11, Petrous

Pall

.
.
—
,

—_—

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 359

peas, and beans ; and of the juicy roots, as the potato, the turnip, the carrot,
the parsnip, and the beet. Of the grains given to the horse, the most gen-
eral, and best adapted to his strength and spirit, is the oat. It is, for the
most part, given to the horse without any preparation, though it is better
masticated and digested when bruised. Two gallons per day, or nine
pounds, are considered to be good feeding, when the horse is on dry food,
and not on hard work ; when on hard work, the quantity may be increased
to three gallons, and when on light work and green food, it may be reduced
to one gallon, and sometimes altogether withdrawn. But, on an average,
ninety bushels in the year will be sufficient, in every case, for the working
horse of a farm. Meal is a fefreshing feed to a horse on a journey, and a
safe-one when the chill is just taken off the water. Beans, when bruised,
are excellent food, tending to correct Jaxativeness.

Fig. 218 is explanatory of the name and situation of the external parts
of a horse.

VARIETIES.

Anrapian. — The celebrated Arabian breed of horses, of which the figure
presented below is a fine portrait, are more compact than the horses of
Barbary, having a rounder body, shorter limbs, with more of sinew, or

what is termed bone. Yet they are of the smaller class of horses, very
little exceeding, on a medium, fourteen hands, or fifty-six inches, in height.
As compared with the horses of countries abounaing in grasses, their aspect
is lean, their form slender, their chest narrow. The power of their deli-
cate limbs is indicated by the well-marked muscles of the fore-arm, and
the starting sinews of the leg The shoulder is oblique ; the withers

360 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 361

ure elevated; the back is moderately short; the quarters are good; the
head is well formed ; the forehead broad; ears somewhat long, but alert ;
eyes full and clear; veins prominent. ‘They are remarkably gentle and
docile, patient, playful, obedient, and intelligent. ‘They subsist on very
scanty fare.

American.— The Mexican horses are derived from Spain, and seem in no
other respect inferior to the European than a less careful management may
account for. ‘The horses of Canada, chiefly of French hneage, are coarse
and small, but hardy, muscular, and useful. Those of our own country are
of every variety, derived originally from England, but crossed by the modern
racer, and by the horses of Syria and Arabia. On this account, we have a
very mixed race of horses, many of which are excellent. Such has been
the attention paid to the race breed in our country, that the best and fastest
trotting horses (see Fig. 220) in the world are now to be found in the
United States. Among the American roadsters, the Morgan family stand
number one. They are exceedingly compact, deep-chested, strong-backed,
fore-legs set wide apart ; head small, high and graceful, eyes fine, and well
set. The family comprises several varieties, among which the Goss and
the Gifford rank very high. We give an engraving (Fig. 221) of one of
these animals, which is a fair sample of the average quality.

European. —Of the European breeds, the present Norman horse is the

Fig. 222.

362 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

most enduring and hard-pulling. 'The Clydesdale is a valuable breed of cart
horses, bred chiefly in the valley of the Clyde; they are strong and hardy,
have a small head, are longer necked than the Suffolk, with deeper legs, and
lighter carcasses. The Suifolk Punch are valuable on farms composed of
soils of a moderate degree of tenacity. The preceding figure is that of an
improved Norman draught stallion.

. Vv. THE ASS.

Rearing and Breeding.—In breeding from the ass, the same general rules
apply as in the case of the horse. The male will procreate at the age of two
and a half years, and the female still earlier. ‘The stallion ass should be
the largest and strongest, at least three, but not more than ten, years old ; his
legs should be long, his body plump, head long and light, eyes brisk, nostrils
and chest large, neck long, loins fleshy, ribs broad, rump flat, tail short,
hair shining, soft, deep gray.

The best time of covering is the last of May, nor must the female be hard
worked whilst with foal, for fear of casting; but the more the male is
worked, in moderation, the better he will thrive. She brings forth her foal
in about a twelve-month, but, to preserve a good breed, she should not pro-
duce more than one in two years. ‘The best age to breed at is from three
years old to ten. When the foal is cast, it is proper to let it run a year with
the dam, and then wean it, by tying up and giving it grass, and sometimes
milk; and, when it has forgotten the teat, it should be turned out into a
pasture, but if it be in winter, it must be fed at times, till it is able to shift
for itself.

Training. — The ass may be broken and trained at the end of the second
year, but should not be worked sooner than the third year. Breaking is
easily effected when two or three years old, by laying small weights upon
his back, and increasing them by degrees.

Age, gc. — The age of the ass is known by his teeth, in the same manne?
as the horse ; viz., at two years and a half old, the first middle incisive teeth
fall out, and the others on each side soon follow; they are renewed at the
same time, and in the same order. ‘The anatomy and physiology of the ass
do not differ very materially from those of the horse.

Characteristics. —The ass is naturally humble, patient, and quiet. He is
extremely hardy, both as to the quantity and quality of his food, contenting
himself with the most harsh and disagreeable herbs. Ir: the choice of water,
he is very nice, drinking only of that which is perfectly clear. He requires
very little looking after, and sustains labor beyond most others. He is sel-
dom or never sick, and endures hunger and thirst’ most resolutely. The
milk of the ass is the lightest of all milks, and is excellent for persons of
delicate stomachs.

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 363

VI. THE MULE.

Rearing, Breeding, §c. —In the breeding of mules, mares of a large breed
and well made should be employed. ‘They should be young, lively, large-
barrelled, small-limbed, moderate-sized head, and a good forehand. It is
well to have the foals, from the time of their being dropped, often handled,
to make them gentle; it prevents their hurting themselves by skittishness
and sudden frights, and they are much easier broken at the proper age, and
become docile and harmless. They may be broken at three years old, but
not hard worked till four. Give. them food enough to prevent their losing
flesh and to keep up their growth, without palling their appetites with deli-
cacies, or making them over fat. They should also have sufficient stable
room, and good litter to sleep on, besides being well rubbed down every day,
particularly in cold, raw, wet weather. When three years old, mules are
proper for use.

Mules are now brought to an astonishing degree of perfection. They are
usually strong, well-limbed, large, sure-footed, and capable of carrying great
burdens, and travelling great distances. Some think it surprising that these
animals are not more propagated, as they are so much hardier and stronger
than horses, less subject to diseases, and capable of living and working to
almost twice the age of a horse. ‘Those that are bred in cold countries are
more hardy and fit for labor than those bred in hot. The general complaint
against them is that they kick and are stubborn, but this is owing to neglect
in breeding.

Vil. THE GOAT.

Description, §c.—'The goat appears to be the connecting link between
the sheep and antelope tribes. It is lively, and though the natural inhabitant
of a mountainous region, is easily domesticated. But it is in wild, rocky
countries, that the goat is chiefly reared. The female gives a great quantity
of milk for so small a creature, and its quality is very superior. She is
readily taught to suckle the young of other animals, and feeds in situations
where the cow could not subsist, which latter is a valuable quality. It
arrives early at maturity, and is very prolific, bearing two and sometimes
three kids at a birth. It does not produce wool, but its hair may be shorn,
and is of some value; and its skin, especially that of the kid, is very valua-
ble. The flesh of the kid, though not much sought after, is equal to that
of the finest lamb.

The male will engender when one year old, and the female at eight months ;
but good stock must come by parents not so young. From two to five years
the male is most vigorous, and the female bears her best kids from two to
eight years. Goats bear well the motion and confinement of ship-board, and
give the best of milk,

364 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

VARIETIES.

‘There are three principal species enumerated, viz., the wild goat, the
ibex, and the Caucasian ibex ; from the first-named the different varieties of
the common domestic goat are believed to have originated. Perhaps the
most celebrated and valuable of all the various breeds is the Thibet

Fig. 223. }

NS
y gee
iW I’ i

(Fig. 223), on account of the soft and delicate wool they produce, and which
falls off in the warmer seasons. These goats are long-bodied, large hooked
horns, stout limbs, and very long glossy hair. The color is frequently milk-
white, but more generally brown, with points of a golden hue.

VIll. THE DOG.

Rearing, Breeding, §c. —In breeding, for first-rate animals, ascertain the
pedigree for at least four generations. The male should be not less than
two years old, and the female at least fifteen months. The male need not
be rejected as unfit until his eighth year, if healthy and vigorous, nor the
female, under similar circumstances, till her sixth year. The female goes

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 365

with young sixty-three days, and has from four to thirteen young at a birth.
The dam may be allowed to breed only three times in two years, and to rear
not more than five puppies ; the whelps should not be suckled longer than six
weeks, and five, or even four, is long enough, if necessary to remove them.
After weaning, feed them moderately with porridge, mashed potatoes, with
skim milk, or new milk, to dilute the mess; let it be fresh and cool. They
should also have a bed of clean straw, fresh water, and an open, airy place
for exercise and sport.

At about four months old, the first set of teeth begin to drop out, and are
replaced by the permanent set. About the twelfth month, the tusks have
acquired their full length. At two years old, a yellow circle appears around
the base of the tusks, gradually developing itself more and more, till the
third year, when the edges of the front or cutting teeth begin to be worn
down, and the little nick, or the crown of the lateral incisors, to disappear.
As the fourth year approaches, the tusks lose their points, and the teeth
begin to decay. As soon as his eighth year has passed away, a few gray
hairs show themselves around his eyes, and at the corners of the mouth.
At the age of twelve to fourteen years, confirmed infirmity sets in, and the
animal does not survive long after.

The dewclaws—the fifth toe upon the hind foot—should be removed,
if removed at all, with a pair of large, sharp scissors ; let the pup be held by
one person, while another feels for the proper place to cut, which must be
done with decision. Cropping, which is, equally with the previous opera-
tion, a very cruel one, must be done, if done at all, by drawing the ears over
the head until the points meet; then, with a very sharp pair of scissors, cut
both points off to the desired length; and, with a single cut to each, from
below upwards, cut away the hinder portion of the flaps of the ears up to the
point. In a week the ears will be well. In training dogs, gentleness does
more than harshness and violence can effect.

VARIETIES.

NewrounpbLanp. — The true breed of Newfoundland is a dog of moderate
stature, seldom exceeding twenty-six or twenty-seven inches in height; long-
podied, broad-chested, shaggy coat; pointed, wolfish muzzle ; ears small, and
inclined to be semi-erect ; color usually black, with a shade of brown through
it, and occasionally some white. The large dogs of the Newfoundland
breed, which have been improved by crossing with the mastiff, are more
showy, but less valuable.

The Newfoundland are remarkably docile and obedient, faithful, good-
natured, and ever friendly to man. They will defend ‘heir master and their
master’s property, and suffer no person to injure the one or the other; and

31*

366 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

however imminent the danger, will not leave them for a minute. They seem
only to want the faculty of speech, in order to make their good wishes and
feelings understood, and they are capable of being trained for almost all the
purposes for which every other variety of the canine species is used. They
are a famous water-dog, and have saved many human beings from drowning.

Fig. 224,

SuepHerp.— The shepherd’s dog of Scotland stands about twenty-one
inches in height at the shoulder, is very gracefully shaped, muzzle pointed,

Fig. 225.

—~—

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 367

ears half erect, coat long but fine and silky, tail and hams fringed with hair,
and the color usually black and tan, or sandy yellow. The animal is
remarkable for his sagacity, and his disposition to tend live stock appears
to be inherent and hereditary. The English shepherd’s dog is larger and
stronger than the Scotch, and has much of the appearance of a cross with the
great rough water-dog. It is coarser in the muzzle and in coat, and is desti-
tute of tail. It is, however, equally sagacious.

Drover. — The drover’s dog bears considerable resemblance to the sheep-
dog, and has usually the same prevailing black or brown color. He possesses
all the docility of the sheep-dog, with more courage, and sometimes a degree
of ferocity, arising from improper training and uses.

Serrer. — The setter, or land spaniel, comprises several varieties. He is
by some sportsmen preferred to the pointer ; and where water is to be got at
occasionally, during a day’s shooting, he is undoubtedly superior. In dis-
position the setter is more affectionate than the pointer, but requires more
training, and that of a mild and gentle character.

Terrier. — The terrier is a dog of very great utility, and of very varied
form and size. They all have one common characteristic, which makes them

Fig. 226.

extremely useful. which is, a determined hostility to those animals termed
vermin, as foxes, otters, polecats, rats, mice, &c.

DISEASES OF THE FOREGOING ANIMALS.

Abscess. — As soon as the abscess is brought to a head, let the matter be
evacuated, either naturally by a bran-poultice, or by opening with a broad-
shouldered lancet. Keep the part clean, trim the hair, and inject into the
wound a little tincture of myrrh and aloes. If the cavity does not soon fill
up, inject, once or twice a day, a wash of a half-ounce of bluestone, with half
a pint of water.

Apoplexy.— For Horses. bleed two gallons from a vein at once, remove
the dung with the hand and give the following mixture: Barbadoes aloes

368 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

1 oz., Epsom salts 6 0z., water 2 pts. For apoplexy or staggers in
Cattle, bleed from four to six quarts, till the beast is faint, and give, every
six hours, a mixture of Hpsom salts 14 Ibs., linseed oil 1 pt., warm water
3 pts., with only half the quantity of salts and oil, till they are well purged ;
after which, give, twice a day, tartar emetic 2 scruples, powdered nitre 4 oz.,
gruel 3 pts.,— mixed for use. For apoplexy in Sheep, bleed a quart, and
give, for a purging drench, Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 oz., warm water
4 oz. ; repeated every six hours, if the bowels are not well opened, and give
once or twice a day tartar emetic 10 grs., nitre 2 drs., gruel 2 oz., — mix for
use. For apoplexy or staggers in Pigs, bleed, and then open the bowels
with Epsom salts and sulphur.

(Alteratives.) —'These are medicines which operate without producing
very decided evacuations. For Sheep, mix together one ounce of Ethiop’s
mineral, 2 ounces of nitre, 4 ounces of sulphur ;— give about two drachms
daily, till the animal is cured. For the Cow, the dose is from a half toa
whole ounce daily. For the Horse, one ounce to an ounce and a half, made
into a bal] with soft soap. If there is any tendency to grease, add to each
ball one drachm of powdered resin. In cases of weakness, two drachms of
gentian powdered, and one drachm of ginger powdered. For Dogs, flour of
sulphur 12 0z., powd. nitre 2 oz., Ethiop’s mineral 1 oz., treacle sufficient
to make a mass; give a piece the size of a nut to a walnut, according to the
size of the dog.

Black Quarter. — Also known as Quarter Evil, Quarter Ill], Black Leg,
Blood Striking, The Blood Joint Felon, or Inflammatory Evil.— Symptoms
— extension of neck, red eyes, breath hot, muzzle dry, pulse quick, heaving,
moaning, loss of appetite, lameness. Bleed copiously, then give a strong
purgative dose, composed of 14 lbs. Epsom salts, 1 pint linseed oil, 3 pints
water. The wearing a seton, occasional doses of physic, and frequent
careful examinations by the owner, are better than all else to prevent this
disease. In Sheep, bleed from the jugular vein till the sheep falls, and give
Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 0z., gruel 4 0z., till the bowels are well
relieved ; then give, twice a day, tartar emetic 10 grains, camphor 20 gr.,
nitre 2 dr., gruel a wineglass full.

Black Water.— Also called Red Water, Brown Water, Black Water,
Moor I], &c. —Symptoms — bloody urine, loss of appetite, languor, apathy,
seclusion, constipation. Bleed copiously; then give Epsom salts 1 Ib., in
2 qts. water, every six hours, in half-pound doses, till the bowels are
relieved. Inflammation of the Kidneys, and Inflammation of the Mucous
Membrane of the Bladder or Urethra, resemble this disease. The first-named
is rare; the second may be treated by bleeding, with a dose of Barbadoes
aloes, in powder, 6 to 8 dr., powdered gum Arabic 1 oz., in a pint of water.

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 369

Red Water in Sheep — bleed freely, and give for a drench, Epsom salts 2
oz., linseed oil 1 oz., warm water 4 oz., — mix for a dose.

Bog Spavin.— For this well-known disease in horses, a blister is the
only means of cure.

Bone Spavin. — Disease of the hock joint: remedied by rest, or cessation
from hard work, or putting to moderate work on soft ground. The bony
deposite, or inflammation, may be removed by repeated blisters. Use a hot
iron only as a last resort.

Botts are grubs, which, in the spring, trouble horses. To kill these,
some use common salt in the animal’s food, or as an injection. But when
once the worm has attached itself to the animal’s stomach, it is difficult to
remove them.

Bowels, Inflammation of.—In case of inflammation of the external and
muscular coats of the bowels of Horses, bleed freely till fainting is produced,
and give the following purge, — Barbadoes aloes 4 dr., powdered gum Ara
bic 4 dr., hot water 4 pint; dissolve, and add a pint of linseed oil, and
repeat the dose in eight hours. The belly should be stimulated with the
following liniment,— mustard § lb., spirit of sal-ammoniac 2 oz., water
enough to make it creamy. A fever-ball may be given twice a day, made
of powdered foxglove 4 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with linseed
meal and treacle or soft soap sufficient. For inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the bowels, produced from an over-dose of physic, give for a
purge — prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered bark 2 dr., powdered opium 1 dr.,
powdered ginger 1 dr., gruel 3 pints,— mix. For inflammation of the
bowels of Cattle, bleed freely, and give for a purge — Epsom salts 1 lb., hot
water 1 qt.; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 pt., to be repeated in six hours,
till the bowels are well relieved, with injections of warm gruel. For the
same disease in Dogs, bleed, put into a warm bath, and give castor-oil 2 oz.,
syrup of buckthorn 1 0z.,— mix for a dose.

Brain, Inflammation of.— Ot the staggers in Horses there are two kinds,
the Sleepy or Stomach, caused by over-feeding, which must be treated by
removing the stomach’s contents by the stomach-pump, then bleed, and give
an opening ball. Mad staggers arise from inflamed brain; bleed from 4 to
6 qts., and repeat this in six or eight hours, and give the following ball, —
Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., calomel 1 dr., and treacle,
inject with warm water and linseed oil. For inflammation of the brain
(frenzy or lough) in Cattle, bleed till the anima. faints, and give for a
purge— Epsom salts 1 lb., hot water 1 qt.; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1
pint, — mix for a dose, and repeat every 6 hours till the bowels are relieved.
For Sheep, bleed freely from the jugular vein, and give for drink — Epsom
salts 2 oz., hot water 4 oz. ; dissolve, and add linseed oil 2 oz., — mix for use.

370 FARMER’S HAND-ROOK.

Brittleness of Hoof. — Mix 3 oz. oil of tar with 6 oz. of common fish-oil ,
rub this well into the crust and the hoof.

Broken Knees, — Bathe the wounds with warm water, and apply, for a
tincture, Gigyptiacum 4 0z., friar’s balsam 1 0z., tincture aloes and myrrh
1 0z,— mix for use. The knee of the horse should be bandaged.

Broken Wind. — This is the rupture of some of the air-cells of the lungs,
and is prevented, rather than cured, by occasionally feeding the horse with
nutritious food, and avoiding great exertion just after he has been fed, so as
not to distend the belly and press upon the lungs.

Bronchitis is catarrh, extending to the entrance of the lungs. Symp-
toms — hard and rapid breathing, and coughing up mucous matter. Bleed
according to the violence of the disease, and blister the brisket and sides
with blister ointment well rubbed in, and give for a ball — Barbadoes aloes
2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., sulphur 2 dr., with treacle; repeat
till the bowels are acted on, assisted by warm and frequent injections, and
give, twice a day, a ball made of — tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered foxglove
4 dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with sufficient treacle.

(Calves, Diseases of.) — For Diarrhea, give two or three times a day 2 or 3
table-spoonfuls of — prepared chalk 4 oz., powdered canella bark 1 0z., laud-
anum 1 oz., water 1 pt. For Costiveness, dissolve 2 to 4 0z.— according
to age —of Epsom salts in 2 qts. of water, and inject into the stomach by
means of the stomach-pump, and, in need, repeat in half doses every 4 hours.
For Canker in the Mouth, give a dose of Epsom salts, and wash with mel-
Cigyptiacum 1 oz., friar’s balsam 1 oz.

Canker in Horses’ Feet. — Pare the hoof, destroy the fungus by means of
the butyr of antimony, and apply tincture of friar’s balsam 1 oz., and tincture
of aloes and myrrh 4 oz., mixed together.

Canker of Ears,in Dogs.— Apply an ointment of burnt alum in fine
powder 1 dr., white vitriol in fine powder 1 dr., spermaceti ointment 4 oz.

Capped Hock.— A Horse affection, produced by a bruise. Apply early
and repeatedly a blister.

Catarrh (common), or Hoose (common cold). — In slight cases, for Catile,
house, and give a dose of Epsom salts. If severe, bleed, and then give —
Epsom salts $ lb., ginger 2 dr., powdered aniseed 2 oz., gruel 3 pts. Tor
Influenza, bleed 3 to 6 qts., and give for a purge— Epsom salts 1 lb.,
powdered coriander seeds 1 oz.; dissolve in 3 pints warm gruel. Ina
Horse, give immediately additional warmth, some mashes, and a ball or two,
each dose, made of — camphor 2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered nitre 4
dr., and sufficient linseed meal and soft soap to make a ball; if severe, bleed,
and, when better, give daily — powdered nitre 2 dr., do. aniseed'1 oz., do.
caraway seeds 1 oz., do. gentian 4 oz., do. ginger 2 dr.;—boil ten min-

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 371

utes in a quart of ale, and give new milk warm. In Sheep, bleed, and give
for a purge, Epsom salts 2 0z., powdered aniseed 2 dr.,— mix, and give in
a little warm gruel.

Catarrhal Fever. — Symptoms, in Horses, shivering, hot mouth, hot skin,
heaving of the flanks, cough, nose red, and discharging a watery matter.
If attended to early, bleed moderately, and repeat this if the pulse increases
and legs get cold. Keep the bowels open by giving a mixture of Barbadoes
aloes 2 dr., gum Arabic 4 oz., water 1 pt., for a dose ; inject with warm
gruel, and repeat the physic in 12 hours, if necessary. If the throat is
sore, apply a blister of powdered cantharides 1 oz., resin ointment 4 0z.,—
mix for use. Hot mashes are excellent, and a constant supply of gruel ;
then, for cooling medicine, give camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., tartar emetic
1 dr., soft soap sufficient to make a ball. ° This disease must not be con-
founded with inflammation of the lungs.

Choking. — Use a flexible tube gently; if the choking matter can be felt
externally, pour a pint of sweet oil down the throat, and rub outside with
the hand.

Colic. — Laudanum 1 0z., spirits of sweet nitre 2 oz., do. of turpentine
2 oz., linseed oil 1 pt.,— mix. Apply hot water, by means of flannels, to
the belly, and give an injection of Epsom salts 4 lb., linseed oil 4 0z., water
4 qts.,— mix. If these do not operate well, in half an hour, bleed.

Contracted Foot. — Place the animal in wet clay during the day, or turn
him into a moist pasture, properly paring away the sole and the toe, and
lowering the heels.

Cough. — Give, in a ball, gum ammoniacum 2 dr., powdered squills 1 dr.,
camphor 1 dr., soap 2 dr., made into a ball with syrup. If very bad, bleed
moderately.

Crib-Biting. — Indicates unsoundness, and tends to colic. Put a strap
tight around his neck, or let him wear a muzzle of such a sort as will not
prevent him from eating, but will disenable him to seize hold of the manger,

Cud, Loss of. — Give, for a drink, when no particular disorder is appar-
ent, Epsom salts 4 lb., powdered gentian 4 oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do.
ginger 2 dr.,— mix, and give in warm gruel.

Curb. — A bony excrescence in the inner side of a horse’s hind leg.
Give, for a cooling lotion, to reduce the inflammation, — afterwards apply-
ing a blister,—sal ammoniac 2 oz., powdered nitre 2 oz., vinegar 1 pt..
water 1 qt.,— mix for use.

Diarrhea.— An excessive discharge of fecal matter. First give an
aperient, either one pint of linseed oil, or, in a quart of water, 4 lb. Epsom
salts, 2 dr. powdered ginger, — mix fora dose; then give, fur an astringent —

372 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu 3 dr., do. opium 4 dr., do. ginger
2 dr.,— mix, and give in a quart of warm gruel.

Distemper in Dogs.— Mix tartar emetic 20 gr., calomel 20 gr., opium
5 gr., and give, in a piece of butter, from 2 to 6 gr., according to size.

Distention of the Rumen, or Grain Sick. — First use the probang, then
give 1 pt. of linseed oi] ; also give injections of warm water.

Dropsy.— In the Horse, — give a diuretic ball of powdered resin 2 dr.,
(Castile soap 2 dr., sulphur 4 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., oil of juniper 4 dr.,
treacle sufficient to make a ball, once or twice a day. When great debility
exists, add a tonic made as follows — powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger
1 dr., do. resin 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., powdered nitre 3 dr., oil juniper
4 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball,—to be given once or twice a day.

Dysentery, or Scouring Rot.— Dangerous and generally fatal disease.
Take a small quantity of blood, and 1 pt. linseed oil, or Epsom salts 4 lb.,
pewdered caraway seeds 2 0z., to be given in 1 qt. of gruel; afterwards,
night and morning, an astringent of prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu
4 dr., do. canella bark 2 dr., do. opium 2 scruples, do. gentian 2 dr., do.
ginger 1 dr.,— mix, and give in thick gruel.

Epilepsy, or Fits. — Animals subject to fits should not be rode nor driven.
If a Cow, either reduce her food or hasten her departure to the butcher. If
a Sheep, the best treatment is to leave the action of the over-excited nervous
energy to cease of itself.

Eye, Inflammation of.—In Horses, if on account of cold, give in a ball—
emetic tartar 14 dr., nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to form
a ball; and frequently foment the eye with hot water. If it does not abate,
use for a lotion —Goulard’s extract 1 dr., spirit of wine 1 dr., soft water
4 pt., — mix, and bathe frequently with a small piece of sponge. If it does
not arise from cold, bleed, and give a dose of physic first, and then give the
balls and use the lotion as above. In Cattle, bleed, and then give, for a
purge, Epsom salts 1 Ib., caraway seeds 1 oz., water 3 pts.,— mix; the
eye to be fomented with hot water frequently, and then use for a lotion —
Goulard’s extract 2 dr., laudanum 2 dr., water 1 pt.,— mix, and bathe with
a sponge ; when the inflammation has abated, use the following — purified
white vitriol 10 gr., soft water 4 pt.,— mix for use.

Eyes, Weak, in Dogs. — Apply, for a wash, white vitriol 8 gr., soft water
4 pt.,— mix together, and apply, with a piece of linen rag, several times a
day.

Farcy. — One of the stages of glanders. Symptoms, — buds or knots on
the sides of the face, inner part of thigh, or on the neck; great swelling of
the legs ana muzzle, cracked heels, bad discharges from the nose, &c. Use
a lotion made of —blue vitriol 1 0z., white do. 1 0z., water 1 pt.,— mix;

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 373

the ulcers to be bathed with this, night and morning, at the same time using
balls made of — bluestone 1 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., liquorice powder
3 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball, to be given twice aday. After giv

ing the above for two or three weeks without relief, then give corrosive sub-
limate 10 gr., gentian powder 2 dr., liquorice do. 4 dr., treacle sufficient to
form a ball; give every morning, and if it produces purging or sickness,
discontinue at once. If green food is not to be had, give carrots.

Feet, Inflammation of. —Symptoms in a horse, — fidgetiness, fever, moan-
ing, lying down. Bleed freely at the toes, and apply soft linseed meal
poultices to the whole foot, removing the shoe and gently paring the hoof;
give for a dose —camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., emetic tartar 1 dr., soft soap
su, ficient to make a ball; if severe, bleed afresh, and the third day, if no
relief comes, apply a blister.

Fever in the Horse. — Symptoms, — dulness, cold extremities, bad appe-
tite, constipation. Bleed, and give for a ball — Barbadoes aloes 6 to 8 dr.,
powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient, &c. ; give bran
mashes and warm water, and perhaps an injection of warm water, 4 lb.
Epsom salts, 4 pt. linseed oil. Afterwards give, night and morning, for a
ball, tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., powd. nitre 2 dr., linseed meal and
treacle enough to form a ball.

Fistulous Withers. — Require to be treated like Poll Evil.

Flooding. — A discharge of blood from the uterus of the cow, after calv-
ing. Apply very cold water to the loins. If it continues, raise the cow’s
hind parts, give 2 dr. opium every hour, keep the patient quiet, take her
calf.

Fly in Sheep. — Appear in May. If the head is sore after the maggots
are killed, apply a plaster of bees’ wax 2 oz., 1 lb. pitch, spread on warm
linen. ‘To destroy the maggots, rub together sal-ammoniac 2 o4., corrosive
sublimate 4 oz., dissolved in 2 gals. hot water, and apply the same.

Feet, Diseases of. — Pumiced feet may be palliated by bar shoes. Tread,
or overreach, — wash out the dirt carefully, and apply a little friar’s balsam,
and in bad cases a poultice. Pricked or Wounded Foot may often be cured
by paring down the sole to the quick, and applying a little tow and friar’s
balsam to the place; if matter has formed, apply a poultice. Thrush, -—
make a paste, of powdered blue vitriol 2 oz., do. white vitriol 1 0z., rubbed
down with lard 2 lbs., tar 1 lb. ; apply some of this, un a little tow, deeply
ito the cleft, over night, to be removed in the morning. Foot Rot, in
Sheep, — apply a liquid, of powdered verdigris 4 0z., blue vitriol 4 oz., white
do. § oz., soft water 4 pt., mixed together, and add nitric acid 1 oz., butyr
of antimony 1 oz.; pare away the horn, and apply with a feather to the part
affected. Foul Foot, —after cutting away the fungous flesh, and using

374 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

butyr of antimony, apply a tincture of friar’s balsam 1 oz., butyr antimony
1 oz.,— mix for use; also give a dose of salts.

Garget. — Inflammation of the internal part of the udder. At first, allow
the calf to suckle, and rub about her udder; if unsuccessful, bleed a little,
and then give, for a drench, Epsom salts 1 lb., aniseed powdered 1 oz.,
warm water 3 pts. ; bathe the udder, thrice a day, with hot water, and after
each bathing rub with yellow basilicon 4 0z., camphor 1 oz., rubbed down
with a little spirits of wine, strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., soft soap 16
oz., mixed well together.

Glanders. —Symptom, — peculiar thin, light, glutinous discharge from
left nostril. Give, for a ball, bluestone 3 0z., dissolved in water, powdered
myrrh 3 oz., do. nitre 8 oz., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to make
the mass into 24 balls; give one night and morning, and inject the ulcers
night and morning with a weak solution of chloride of lime, by means ofa
syringe, at the same time giving the horse green food.

Grease. —An inflammation of the horse’s heel, stopping the greasy matter
from exuding on its surface. Wash with soft soap and water; then apply,
for an ointment, yellow wax 2 0z., sweet oil 8 oz.; melt together, and add
sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr.; use a little after each bathing.
Give bran mashes, a diuretic ball, every 3d or 4th day, at the same time
having green food, if possible. If not attended to, the inflammation extends
and the heel cracks ; poultice it with carrots boiled soft, or with linseed
meal ; apply the following caustic, — bluestone 2 dr., alum 2 dr., water 1
pt. When the inflammation has subsided, leave off the poultice, and apply,
for an ointment, yellow resin 4 oz., do. wax 4 oz., sweet oil 1 qt.; melt

gether, and add calamine in very fine powder 4 lb., — stir till cold.

Griping. — Mix senna-leaves 12 0z., guaiacum-wood 2 0z., elecampane-
root 2 oz., aniseed 2 oz., caraway do. 2 oz., coriander do. 2 0z., stick-
liquorice 2 oz., stoned raisins 8 oz., rectified spirits of wine 3 pts., soft water
3 pts. Let this mixture stand two weeks, occasionally shaking it; dose
for a Calf, 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls, — for a Horse, 4 pt.

Grogginess. —In Horses, a peculiar knuckling over of the fetlock-joint,
and tottering of the fore-leg. No cure.

Heart, Inflammation of. —Not common. The only remedy is copious
bleeding. It is indicated by quick pulse, rapid action of the heart, heard
even at a distance.

Healing Dogs’ Ears. — Melt together yellow resin 2 0z., do. wax 1 0z.,
sweet oil 4 pt., and when it begins to cool, stir in 4 oz. powdered calamine ;
apply it to the sores.

Hide-bound. — Hardness of the skin of the Horse. If there be no other
disease, give a mild physic-ball, of Barbadoes aloes 5 to 6 dr., powdered

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 375

ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball. After this
lias operated, give every day, with bran mashes, green food, regular exercise,
and good grooming, a ball made of powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre
2 oz., do. yellow resin 1 oz., do. gentian 2 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz., treacle
sufficient to make eight balls.

Hoove.— Symptoms in Cattle, — the animal ceases to eat, is distressed,
breath oppressed, moaning, belly blown up ; brain is next affected, tongue
protrudes. Introduce, as often as the belly swells, an elastic pipe down the
throat into the stomach, which liberates the gas and relieves the animal ;
when relieved, give a dose of Epsom salts 1 lb., caraway seeds 2 0z., ginger
4 oz., gruel 3 pts., and then, to give tone to the stomach, for three or four
mornings, give a dose of Epsom salts 4 0z., powdered gentian 1 oz., do. ginger
4 oz., do. caraway 1 oz., gruel 3 pts. In Calves,— introduce the elastic
pipe. In Sheep, use the elastic pipe, or probang, same as for cattle, and
give a dose of Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger 1 dr., caraway 2 dr., in
4 pint of warm water.

Hydrocephalus, or Water in the Head, in Sheep.— Give moderate doses
of Epsom salts combined with ginger and gentian; for a Sheep, the dose
may be — Epsom salts 2 oz., gentian 1 dr., ginger 4 dr., in a4 pt. warm
water.

Jaundice, or Yellows. — Symptoms in Cattle, — yellow eyes, urine, and
skin. If there be fever, bleed lightly, and then give Epsom salts 1 Ib.,
powdered ginger 4 dr., warm water 3 pts.; after the bowels are well
opened, give every day, for a purge, madder 1 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz.,
powdered caraway seeds 1 oz., Epsom salts 2 to 4 0z., warm water 3 pts.
In Sheep, — give repeatedly, for a purge, Epsom salts 2 0z., powdered ginger
4 dr., do. aniseed 2 dr., warm water 4 pt. ; if this be too weakening, give
powdered gentian 2 dr., do. bark 1 dr., do. ginger 4 dr., warm water 4 pt.

Joint Felon, or Rheumatism.—Give for a drench, to keep the bowels
open, Epsom salts 4 lb., powdered caraway seeds 1 oz., flour of sulphur
_ 4 0z., warm water 1 qt.; also give, once or twice a day, tartar emetic 1 dr.,
camphor dr., nitre 2 dr., aniseed powder I oz., well rubbed together, and
given in 1 qt. thick gruel; if the joints continue much swollen, use for a
liniment — spirits of hartshorn 2 0z., opodeldoc 2 0z., camphor liniment 4
oz., laudanum 1 oz., — mix for use.

Kicks, and other Bruises. —¥oment the parts freely with hot water; if
the skin is broken, apply a tincture of friar’s balsam 2 oz., tinct. of aloes
and myrrh 2 oz., — mix for use.

Kidneys, Inflammation of.— In Horses, — bleed freely, every 6 hours, if
requisite ; and give. for a ball, Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., powdered ginge1
2dr seacle sufficient to form a ball ; the operation of the physic to be as-

376 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

sisted by injections of warm water and 4 pt. linseed oil, frequently thrown
up, the loins well fomented with hot water, and afterwards apply a mustard
poultice, with bran mashes and linseed tea.

Lameness of Shoulder. — Foment frequently with hot water, bleed a little
from the plate vein, and give a dose of physic; and in obstinate cases apply
a blister, or a liniment of opodeldoc 4 oz., laudanum 1 oz., sweet oil 4 oz.,
spirits of hartshorn 4 0z., — mix, and after each fomenting with hot water,
rub well in.

Lampas. —1n Horses, —a swelling of some of the bars of the mouth.
Give a few mashes, aided by a gentle alterative; in need, make a few mod-
erate cuts across the bars.

Lice in Cattle.— Result from poor keep. Use, for ointment, strong
mercurial ointment 2 oz., lard $ lb., — mix, and rub where the lice are found.

Liver, Inflammation of. — Symptoms — fever, reclining on the right side,
fulness on that side of the belly ; urine yellow or brown, and sometimes
bloody. If there is much fever, bleed a little, and give— calomel 1 dr.,
powdered opium 10 gr., do. ginger 2 dr.; rub together, and give in 1 qt.
gruel, and repeat it twice a day; give, in 6 hours after first dose, a purge of
Epsom salts 8 0z., water 1 qt. ; dissolve and add linseed oil 1 pt.; repeat
till the bowels are open. If purging takes place from the first, give the
calomel, opium and ginger, and give the drench as in diarrhea, at the same
time blistering the right side; if great weakness ensue, give, for a tonic,
powdered gentian 4 oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. aniseed 1 oz., Epsom
salts 4 oz.,— mix, and give in 1 pt. warm brandy. For Sheep, bleed mod-
erately, and keep the bowels open by a drench made of Epsom salts 2 oz.,
powdered ginger 1 dr , warm water 4 oz.

Locked Jaw. —In Horses, — bleed till the circulation is evidently affected,
so as to administer a strong purging ball or drink, assisted by injections of
one pt. linseed oil to one gal. warm water, at the same time applying astrong
blister from the poll to the rump, and even on the side; when the physic
begins to act, give an anti-spasrnodic of powdered opium 1 dr., do. aniseed
2 dr.,camphor 1 dr. ; rub the camphor down with a little spirit of wine, and
mix with the opium and aniseed, and beat into a ball with treacle. In Cat-
tle, —bleed till the beast threatens to fall, and give, for a drink, Epsom salts
1§ lb., flour of sulphur 4 Ib., warm water 2 qts.,— mix, and repeat in 4 lb.
doses every 6 hours, assisted by injections every 4 hours, composed of Ep-
som salts § lb., linseed oil 4 pt., warm water 4 qts. ; when weil operated,
give 1 dr. opium, dissolved in warm water, twice a day, and put a seton in
the dewlap. For Sheep, —bleeding, and physic, — either Epsom salts o1
linseed oil.

Mallenders and Sallenders. — A scurfy eruption in the legs of horses.

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. mar (ir

Give a diuretic ball every third night, and dress twice a day with vintment
made of tar 4 oz., suet 4 0z., — melt together, and add sugar of lead 1 oz
— stir till cold.

Mange.— Fora Horse, give a physic-ball of Barbadoes aloes 6 dr., calome
1 dr., powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., oil of caraway 20 drops,
treacle sufficient to form a ball. After the mange has set, give the following
alterative balls: powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., Castile
soap 2 0z., flour of sulphur 8 oz., soft soap enough to make the mass into 8
balls ; give one of these every night, and use an ointment of flour of sulphur
8 oz., strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., soft soap 4 oz., train oil 1 pt.; rub
well together, and then rub it in, with the hand, over the parts affected,
using it moderately ; repeat, and, if needful, add 2 oz. of spirits of tar. In
Cattle, use a drench, of Epsom salts 4 lb., flour of sulphur 4 1b., — mix, and
give in 3 pts. of thin gruel every third day, and use the same ointment as for
horses. In Dogs,—mix for use, and rub in carefully, with the hand, upon
the affected parts, an ointment of flour of sulphur 1 |b., soft soap 4 oz., oil
of tar 1 oz., train oil § pt.

Megrins in Horses. — Is the mildest form of determination of blood to the
head. Give present relief by drawing a penknife deeply across the bars of
the mouth, and set them bleeding; then wash well, and give a dose of
physie, with green food. When the physic has operated, give every night
an alterative ball, made of flour of sulphur 5 0z., powdered nitre 5 oz., do.
resin 14 oz , do. black antimony 3 oz., liquorice and soft soap sufficient to
make 12 balls.

Miscarriage. —In Mares, often arises from over-exertion, or accidents,
or stinting in food, or high feeding and idleness. When, therefore, the beast
is near her time, separate her from the rest, and put her in some convenient
quiet place. When there is danger of slipping the calf, the cow should be
taken from the pasture or stable the over-night, and from 2 to 3 or 4 qts. of
blood drawn ; and give for a purging drink, repeated in about 8 or 10 days,
Epsom salts 1 lb., nitre 2 oz., ginger and aniseed, in powder, 1 oz. each, trea-
cle 4 0z. ; pour 3 pts. hot water upon these, and give when new-milk warm ;
after it operates, give for one drink, — alum in powder 4 oz., nitre 1 oz., grains
of paradise, and aniseeds, fresh powdered, 1 oz. each, solid opium cut small
3 dr., treacle 4 table-spoonfils ; put this into a pitcher, pour 1 qt. hot water
upon 3t, cover it down till new-milk warm, and then give it to the beast. If the
calf is slipped, separate the cow from the herd, and give, for a drink, sper-
maceti 2 0z., spirits of turpentine 1 0z., one egg-yelk ; beat these together,
then add grains of paradise, and caraway seeds, fresh powdered, 1 oz. each,
treacle 40z.,— mix in 1 qt. warm gruel, add a wine-glass of gin, and give it,

new-milk warm, every third day, for3 times. In Sheep, must be prevented,
32 *

378 FARMFRR’S HAND-BOOK

asin the tw: former cases, py caref. attention to their Labits, feed, and
condition. If ‘he ewe is afterwards attacked with fever, she may be treated
as for fever ; it very weak, give doses of ginger 2 dr., gentian 1 dr., Epsom
salts 1 oz., in warm water.

Nasal Gleet.—In Horses, give a ball, night and morning, made of blue
vitriol 1 dr., dissolved in water; powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr. ;
treacle and meal enough to form a ball. Inject the nose with a solution of
chloride of lime.

Navel Ill. — When the navel bleeds, tie a ligature a short distance from
the belly ; a pledget of lint, dipped in friar’s balsam, over it, confined with
a bandage, and changed night and morning ; and keep the bowels open with
linseed oil; then give a cordial drink, in a little gruel, once a day, made of
powdered caraway 2 dr., do. gentian 1 dr., do. ginger 4 dr.

Palsy. — In the Horse, if from violence or accident, give a dose of physic,
foment the back or loins with hot water, and rub in, for an ointment,
opodeldoc 4 oz., spirits of turpentine 4 oz., do. of hartshorn 4 oz., mixed
together ; if necessary, after three or four days, apply a mustard liniment.
In Cattle, keep the bowels well open by a drench made of Epsom salts 1 Ib.,
powdered caraway 1 oz., do. aniseed 1 oz., do. ginger 2 dr.,— mix, and
give in 1 qt. warm beer, and use same liniment as for horses. In Sheep, keep
the bowels well open with a drink of Epsom salts 2 oz., warm water 3 oz. ;
dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 oz., — mix together.

(Pigs, Diseases of.) — For the common diseases of pigs, give flour of sul-
phur 1 lb., madder 4 lb., powdered nitre 4 Ib., do. black antimony 2 0z.,
— mix, and give one or two table-spoonfuls in their food for a dose.

Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the Lungs. — In Horses, bleed freely till
fainting begins; then give, for a fever-ball, tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered
foxglove 4 dr., do. nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap enough to form a
ball, to be given two or three times daily. After the force of the fever is
reduced, it may be necessary to apply extensive blisters to the brisket, and
to the sides under the elbows, the hair being shaved close, and the ointment
made of powdered Spanish flies 1 part, lard 4 parts, resin 1 part; melt the
lard and resin together, then add the Spanish flies, and rub the ointment
well in with the hands for 4 of an hour. In Cattle, the treatment is
similar; bleed freely, and, if needful, repeatedly ; give a dose of salts, and
then the following — tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., in 1 qt.
thick gruel. If the blister-ointment fails, hot water and a hot iron may be
used.

Poisons. —For Cattle, affected by the yew-tree, hemlock, dropwort,
olack henbane, and wild parsnip, give 1 lb. Epsom salts in 2 gts water ; use

4e stomach-pump, injecting and copiously withdrawing water. Symptoms

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 379

— sudden swelling, thirst, refusal of solid food, grinding of the teeth, paw
ing, and rolling as in pain.

Poll Evil. — First bleed, administer a dose of physic, and apply cold
lotions. If these fail, use poultices and warm fomentations, and then intro-
duce a seton skilfully.

Ring-bone. —In Horses, an enlargement of the postern joint ;— apply a
blister over the ring-bone, formed of powdered cantharides 1 oz., resin
ointment 4 0z., — mix for use.

Rheumatism. —In Dogs, use for an embrocation, camphorated oil 2 0z.,
spirits of hartshorn 1 oz., laudanum 4 oz., — mix for use.

Roaring. —In the early stages, a blister, bleeding, cooling medicine,
may succeed in recovering; when confirmed, it is cureless. It is an
unnatural contraction of the windpipe and larynx.

Rot. — An affection of the lungs and liver, with a dropsical tendency.
Symptoms, — if, in warm, sultry, and rainy weather, sheep that are grazing
on low and moist lands feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there
is reason to fear that they have contracted the rot; this suspicion will be
further increased, if, in a few weeks afterwards, the sheep begin to shrink,
and become flaccid in their loins, — by pressure about the hips at this time a
crackling is sometimes perceptible; now, or soon after, the countenance
looks pale, the skin is pale red, and the wool easily separates from the felt,
and, as the disorder advances, the skin becomes dappled with yellow or
black spots; about this time, the eye loses its lustre, becoming white and
pearly, and to this succeed debility and emaciation. For a cure, both tur-
pentine and common salt. have sometimes been used with success; the

‘latter is guod to prevent, as also are aromatic vegetable substances, — pars-

ley, for instance, —also give them, when feeding on watery plants, some
hay, corn, or oil-cake.

Round-bone, Sprain of. —Foment well and often with hot water, then
blister.

Saddle-galls, Sit-fasts and Warbles.— Allow no pressure on the parts
affected ; then dress with common salt dissolved in water, and the brine
mixed with one fourth its bulk of friar’s balsam.

Scab in Sheep. — This is owing to the presence of minute insects. Use
for a lotion, corrosive sublimate 1 oz., sal-ammoniac 4 0z., spirits of turpen-
tine 1 pt., hot water 2 gal. Dissolve the sublimate and sal-ammoniac in
the water, and then add the turpentine ; separate the wool, remove the scab,
and apply the lotion.

Scour in Lambs. — Mix, and give one or two table-spoonfuls once or
twice a day, — prepared chalk 2 0z., powdered canella bark 2 dr., tincture
of catechu 4 0z., laudanum 4 oz., water 1 pt.

380 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Sore Teats in Cows. — Before milking, bathe the teats well with warm
water; after milking, use for an ointment, wax 2 oz., lard 6 oz.,— melt
together, and add sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr. ; stir till cold.

Splint. —Caused by inflammation of the shank-bone: its growth is
attended by heat, tenderness, and pain. If it produce lameness, cut the
hair off close, and rub in, for three or four nights, a little strong mercurial
ointment; then blister the part with blister ointment, and repeat it if neces-
sary. When the inflammation from the blister has subsided, turn him out.

Staling, Difficulty. —In the Horse, give bran mashes, green food, and
plenty of gruel; if this fails, take a little blood, and give a mild dose of
physic. .

Staling, Profuse; or, Diabetes. —In Horses, bleed, give a dose of
physic, and then twice a day give an astringent ball, made of powdered bark
4 oz., do. opium § dr., do. coriander 2 dr., treacle enough to form a ball ;
give green food, or a few carrots.

Stifle Lameness. — Foment frequently with hot water; give a mild dose
of physic, and Jet the animal rest.

Strangles. — Symptoms, —a cough, discharge from the nostrils, and alse
one of a soapy nature from the mouth, swelling under the throat, loss o
appetite, fever. Give mashes and green food, and apply to the throat, over
the tumor, a blister of powdered cantharides 1 0z., yellow basilicon 4 oz.
oil of thyme 2 dr., — mix for use. When the tumor has formed, open it with
a lancet, and dress with a tincture of friar’s balsam 2 0z., tincture of myrrh
and aloes 2 0z.,—mix. When the tumor begins to heal, give a mild dose
of physic. It is not often necessary to give medicine, if much fever exists.
At the commencement of the disease, give, for a ball, tartar emetic 4 dr.,
powdered nitre 16 dr., linseed meal and soft soap enough to make 4 balls.

Surfeit. — A skin complaint in horses. Bleed a iittle, give mashes and
green food, and a ball, made of— powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre
2 oz., do. resin 1 oz., do. gentian root 2 oz., flour of sulphur 4 oz., soft
soap enough to make 8 balls.

Swelled Legs. — Give regular exercise, and assist by hand-rubbing, and
by bandages wrapped rather tightly around the legs. Give no diureti
balls.

Thick-wind. — Feed moderately, give green food occasionally, ana
gentle exercise.

Thorough-pin. —In Horses, a swelling above the hock. Apply a blister.

Ticks or Lice in Sheep. — Apply carefully, for a wash, powdered arsenic
4 lb., soft soap 7 lbs., soft water 4 gals. ; boil this till the arsenic is dis-
solved, and add as much soft water as will dip 50 to 70 sheep.

Turnsick, or Goggles, or Giddy, o Dunt.— A complaint of the head,

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 381

proceeding from the presence of hydatids in the brain, lodged in a sac or
bladder, which presses upon the brain. It is beyond the reach of medicine
or mechanical operations. Sturdy is a name often given to this disease, as
well as to Water in the Head, but they are distinct. Treat by examining
the skull for a soft spot on the bone, where the water is collected. Per-
forate the skull with a trocar, accompanied by a tube, through which the
water may escape; after which, apply a few drops of essence of myrrh to
the aperture ; shelter the animal and dress the wound.

Ulcers. — Bathe 2 or 3 times a day, with a solution of chloride of lime,
and use an ointment of yellow basilicon 4 oz., powdered verdigris 4 0z.; rub
together for use.

Warbles. — Foment with hot water, and when the tenderness has abated,
apply a lotion, of strong vinegar 1 pt., rectified spirit of wine 2 oz., extract
of Goulard 1 oz., spirits of turpentine 1 oz.,— mix together for use.

Warts. — Cut them off close with a pair of scissors, and touch the roots
with lunar caustic.

Womb Inflammation. —It occurs in Cows, after calving or bulling.
Symptoms, — great irritation and pain. Bleed, and give for a drench,
Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered caraway seeds 2 0z., warm gruel 3 pints.
Bathe the womb with Goulard water, or vinegar and water mixed equally.
In Sheep, bleed and open the bowels with Epsom salts in 2 oz. doses.

Worms. — In the Horse, unless they abound, let them remain. If they
descend into the rectum, inject a quart of linseed oil, or salt and water. If
a strong dose of physic is intended to be given to the patient, when it has
set, give a ball every morning, fasting for a week, of tartar emetic 8 dr.,
flour of sulphur 6 0z., powdered ginger 8 dr., treacle sufficient to make 8
balls. In Dogs, give, for a drench, spirits turpentine 1 to 4 dr., castor-o
2 to 8 dr., — mix for a dose according to size.

Wounds. — Foment frequently with hot water, and apply a tincture of
friar’s balsam 2 oz., compound tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 oz.; if
unhealthy granulations arise, wash, previously to using the tincture, with
bluestone 1 o0z., soft water 1 pt. Wounds generally heal better without
sewing, if it can be avoided. For Dogs, tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 o2z.,
friar’s balsam 1 0z.,— mix these together, for use.

LIVE STOCK CALENDAR.

November. — The month of November may be said to be the commence-
ment of the farmer’s year. By this time the labors of his harvest have been
concluded, and his produce has been secured; and he is now proceeding to
prepare the ground for the crép of another season, if the weather be suffi-
ciently open for him to do anything more before the next spring.

382 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

The cattle may be supposed to consist of cows; of a certain number of
calves ; of a certain number of the steers and heifers of the preceding year,
termed, therefore, one-year-olds, as having completed their first year, but
now approaching to the end of their second year; of a certain number of
steers and neilers which have completed their second year, and are therefore
termed two-year-olds, though now approaching the end of their third year ;
and of a bull. The two-year-old steers and heifers are now arrived at matu-

y; the heifers intended for breeding have received the male in the course
uf the season, and the older steers are ready for final breeding.

As the month of October had advanced, the pasture had begun to fail ; and
before the termination of the month, the various cattle had been put in their
respective houses, yards, and stalls. ‘The cows which had borne calves in
the early part of the year had been put in the cow-house and tied in then
respective stalls, —straw, and a limited proportion of succulent food, as
turnips, having been supplied to them. The calves which were born in the
early part of the year had been put in one or more yards with sheds, had
been well littered, and had received straw, and a full allowance of turnips.

The steers and heifers of the preceding year, now turned their first year,
and approaching the end of their second year, had also been put into yards
with sheds. They had likewise been plentifully littered, receiving straw,
with a full allowance of turnips.

The older cattle —those that have completed their second year—had been
treated thus : — Such of them as were heifers, to be retained for breeding,
had been separated from the males in the preceding spring ; had received
the male as they came into season, in spring and the early part of summer ;
and, being with calf, had been put into yards with sheds, to be tied to their
respective stalls, when within a few weeks of calving. The steers again,
which are now to be finally fattened, had either been tied in stalls, or put in
pairs into yards with sheds, in either case receiving a full supply of tur-
nips, or other nourishing food.

The bull had been put into a shed or yard by himself, receiving straw for
provender, and a sufficient supply of turnips.

Such may be supposed to be the arrangement of the cattle at the com-
mencement of the month of November. The same treatment with respect
to them is to be continued during the entire month ; —the cows and heifers
are to receive straw, with a modified allowance of turnips — the calves and
steers straw, with a full supply of turnips.

The sheep again, consisting, it may be assumed, of a regular breeding-
stock of ewes, may be supposed to have been arranged and treated thus : —
The ewes, consisting partly of sheep,that had borne lambs, had, by the 10th
of October, the rams admitted to them. At the beginning of November the

DOMESTIC Of FARM ANIMALS. 383

ram. .nd ewes are still pasturing together, receiving no other food but grass,
and by the middle of the month the rams are withdrawn.

The lambs born in the spring, now termed ewe and wether hogs, had,
on the failure of the pastures in October, been penned on turnips. At the
beginning of November, they continued penned on turnips, they being
attended to as well as the sheep, and the pens being shifted when necessary.

The horses, in the month of October, had been put upon their full allow-
ance of hay and corn. At the beginning of November they are receiving
full feeding ; but before the middle of the month, when the hours of labor
become short, the hay may be withdrawn. and the allowance of oats reduced
one half.

By the beginning of the month the colts had been put into their yards, or
into a paddock with a shed, receiving straw as provender, with any succu-
lent roots, as turnips and potatoes.

The swine and poultry are receiving their usual food. The pigs are fat-
tened at all times, and the poultry receive their regular supplies of food in
their yard; and as the same method of management continues throughout
the year, the feeding of this class of stock need not be again adverted to.

December. — The cows are in the cow-houses ; the young cattle in their
yards ; the feeding cattle in their houses or yards, as before ; and they are
all kept and treated in the same manner throughout the month. The ewes
are, as before, on grass; but in snows, or hard frosts, they receive an allow-
ance of hay. The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before,
and are kept so during the month. The hours of daylight, and consequently
of labor, being short, the horses are still fed on straw, and receive their
modified allowance of corn. ‘The colts are in their yard or paddock, receiv-
ing straw, with an allowance of green food, and are kept so during the
month.

January. — The cattle are still in their houses and yards, and are fed as
during the last month ; turnips being brought, and a store kept in reserve,
as formerly. Some of the cows may calve during this month, or towards
the end of it. They are to be well attended to at this time, and the calves
separated from them at the birth, and fed on new milk three times in the
day. ‘The ewes are on grass-land, if the weather be not too severe, receiv-
ing hay when the weather renders it necessary. The ewe and wether hogs
continue penned on turnips, as during the previous month. The horses are
on straw, and are receiving their short allowance of corn. The colts are in
their yard or paddock, and are fed as before.

Frsruary.— The cattle are in their houses and yards, and are fed as
during the last month. The cows will calve during this monih, and must
be carefuily attended to. The ewes are on grass, if the weather is not too

384 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

rigoruus ; are after the middle of the month, they may have turnips carried
to them, so as to prepare them for the lambing season by the middle of
next month. ‘The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before.
By the middle of the month, if not sooner, the horses should be put upon
hay, and receive their full allowance of corn, in preparation for their work
in spring. In place of straw, the colts may now receive hay.

Marcu. —The cattle are still in their yards, and feeding as before
During the month all the cows may be supposed to have ea.ved. The adai-
tional calves required are to be purchased, the best and earliest that can be
obtained. The ewe and wether hogs are on turnips, as before. The ewes
will now begin to lamb. They have been hitherto receiving turnips, but as
they lamb they are transferred with their young to new grass. The male
lambs are castrated in lots. The horses are on full work, and are receiv-
ing their tull allowance of hay and corn. The colts are receiving hay.

Aprit. — The cattle are in their yards, and fed as before ; the calvéS are
receiving milk, with such nourishing substances in addition as may enable
the milk of each cow to bring up two calves. The ewes are now on new
grass, with their lambs. At the commencement of the month, the ewe and
wether hogs are still on turnips, but by the middle of the month they are
removed from turnips and put on grass. The horses are at full work, and
receive a full supply of hay and corn. The colts that have reached their
third year may now be taken up and trained to work; or they may be
allowed another summer’s grass, and be taken up for training in autumn.
Mares will foal this month.

May.— At the commencement of this month, the cattle may yet be in
their yards, and be fed as formerly. By the middle of the month, the former
year’s calves, now yearling steers, and the two-year-old steers, if the grass
is sufficiently advanced, are turned out to pasture ; the cows are turned out
to pasture, and if there are any of the two-year-old cattle which are heifers
frum which it is wished to breed, they must be separated from the steers of
the same age, and placed amongst the cows, and when they come into sea-
sun, if they have not already done so, they must receive the male. During
this month, the older cows should all have received the male, so that they
may calve in the following February. With respect to the feeding oxen
now turned their third year, and consequently three-year-olds, these may be
fed during the month, as long as there are turnips sufficient for them. Dur-
ing this month, the mares should all have received the male, so that they
may foal in the subsequent month of April. The colts are turned out for
the season to grass. As the weather becomes warm, the sucking calves
may be turned out to a small paddock. After being weaned in their fourth
month, they are turned out to feed for the remainder of the season, along

eo oe |) oe

DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 385

with the cows and feeding stock. The sheep of all kinds, at the commence-
ment of the month, were on grass, and they continue to be pastured in their
respective fields during the month. By the end of it, the fat sheep, if ready,
may be washed and shorn, or else these operations are deferred till later in
the season.

June.— The cows and steers are pastured in the field during the month.
All the calves will be weaned during this month, and turned out to graze
for the remainder of the season. Such of the cows, heifers, and mares, as
have not received the male, now receive him. At the beginning of the
month the horses should receive green forage, and towards the middle of it
they may be put at night in the pasture-field. At the beginning of the
month, the ewes with their lambs, and the ewe and wether hogs, are at
grass in their respective enclosures ; and at or before the beginning of the
month, they are washed, and in eight days afterwards shorn. In ten days,
or as soon as convenient after shearing, the wether-hogs, now dinmonts, and
such of the ewe-hogs, now gimmers, as are not to be retained on the farm
for breeding, may be sold.

Juty. — The cows, oxen, and weaned calves, are at grass, and are kept
so during the month. The horses continue to receive green forage during
the day, and may be permitted to pasture in the fields at night; and this
method of feeding may be continued during the month. But their work
having become easy towards the middle of the month, their allowance of
corn may be lessened. At the commencement of the month the ewes, with
their lambs, are in their former fields of grass ; by the middle of the month
the lambs are weaned ; and from this time forward, the lambs, now termed
hogs, are kept separate from the breeding ewes.

Aveust. — The cows, steers, and calves, are at grass, and are kept so
during the month. The ewes are at grass in their own fields, and the ewe
and wether hogs in theirs. The old ewes that are to be sold may now be
selected from the rest of the flock, and marked for that purpose ; and, at
the same time, all the other sheep may have their distinguishing mark put
upon them. The horses are receiving green forage, and, when the first
crop of clover is consumed, other feed may be furnished. They may still
be allowed to be in the fields at night.

Sepremsper.— The cows, calves, and steers, are all at grass, and are
kept so during the month. All the sheep are likewise at grass during the
month ; but before the end of it, the old ewes which had been marked for
sale may be sold. ‘Che horses are kept on green forage. As the month
advances, they are taken up from grass at night, and kept in the stable ;
and, at the end of the month, they are put again on hay and hard food.

Ocrozer. — At the beginning of the month, the cows, calves, and steers,

33 Z

386 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

are at grass; but as the month advances, the cows may be taken up at night,
and receive green forage in the house. Before the 10th of the month, the
rams are admitted to the ewes and gimmers. At the commencement of the
month, the ewe and wether hogs are at grass, but towards the end of it,
when the pastures fail, they are penned on turnips. Towards the end of the
month, too, as the pastures fail, the cows, calves, and steers, are put finally
into their respective winter houses and yards.

CHAPTER VIII.
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.

THE RAISING, BREEDING, DISEASES, AND TREATMENT, OF THE COMMON BARN
FOWLS: ALSO, THE TURKEY—THE GOOSE—THE DUCK, ETC., IN ALL THEIR

IMPORTANT VARIETIES.

I. COMMON BARN FOWLS.

VARIETIES.

388 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Swancrat (Fig. 227).—The preceding very excellent representations are
actual portraits, drawn from life. They were imported by William C. Rud-
man, of Philadelphia, from whom they were purchased by W. J. McGowan.

The cock, 15 months old, weighed 12 pounds, and the hen, 11 months old,
weighed 93 pounds.

Banxiva. — This fowl is a native of Java, has a red indented comb. red
wattles. and ash-gray legs and feet. The cock has a thin indented or scal-
Joped comb, and wattles under the mouth ; the tail a little elevated above
the level of the rump, and the feathers disposed somewhat in the form of
titles. Neck-feathers long, hanging, rounded at the tips, and of the finest
gold color; head and neck fawn color ; wing-coverts are dusky-brownish
and black ; tail and belly black. The hen is of a dusky ash-gray and yel-
lowish color, comb and beard much smaller than the cock, with no feathers
on the neck besides the long hackles. The annexed cut represents a cock
of t}.is variety.

Duneuitt — This is the commonest form of the domestie fowl. The cock

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 389

has a Aarge thin comb and wattles, and the brilliant plumage of the wild
species ; but the best hens are generally of dingy colors, though there is
almost infinite variety in their shades; the white ones are better for the
table than for laying. The legs of the common fowls should be short, white,
and shining, and their bodies round and plump.

Game. — This kind of fow] is rather slender in the body, neck, bill and
legs, and the colors, particularly of the cock, very bright and showy. The
flesh is white, tender, and delicate, and the eggs small, but, like the flesh,
much esteemed for superior delicacy ; and therefore, for more reasons than
one, it would be better to raise them for domestic use than for the cock-pit.

Dorxinc. — This valuable variety has acquired a great popularity, and is
easily distinguished. ‘Their flesh is exceedingly juicy, white, and deli
eate, and they have the advantage of feeding rapidly, and growing to a
very large size, when propeiry managed. Capons and poulardes are fre-

Fig. 229.

quently made of these fowls, growing to an enormous size when castrated.
The feathers are almost always white, and their legs short and remarkably
smooth.

Matay, or Currracone.— These fowls have remarkably long legs and
large bones ; their flesh is, however, finely flavored, when they have been
properly fattened, and their eggs are so large and rich that two of then are
equal to three of those of ordinary fowls. The color of the feathers ix black,
or very dark brown, streaked with yellow, and the legs are large and coarse

33 *

390 FARMER’? T1AND-BOOK.

The fowls are tall, strong-beaked, and powerful ; the cock has a loud and
harsh crow. It is said that a cross breed between the Malay and the com-
mon fow] produces a breed very superior to either of its progenitors.
Papuan, or Jaco.— There are numerous hybrids and varieties of the
Jago fowl, one of the most interesting being the Spanish fowl, represented
in the following figure. The. body and tail feathers are of a rich black

Fig. 230.

with occasionally a little white on the breast. The cock is a most majestic
bird ; its deportment grave and stately; and it is encircled with a ring of
brown feathers, from which rises a black tuft which covers the ears. Therw
are similar feathers behind the comb, and beneath the wattles. The legs
and feet are of lead-color, except the sole of the foot, which is yellowish
The every-day or ever-laying fowls are the same as the Hamburgh, or
Dutch. They are, however, evidently only a variety, or hybrid, of the
Jago fowl, with the nourishment that was required in that species, and in
some of its varieties, to form a tuft of feathers, expended in an enormous
comb and wattles. These fowls are very large, their feathers blackish, with
an iridescent green. ‘The wattles and combs, even of the hens, are unusu

ally large, and the caps under the ears are very large, and of a bluish
white.

Crestep. — This variety is known by a densely-tufted crest and a small
comb ; it is also variegated with fine colors, but it agrees in other respects
with the common dunghill fowl. The different varieties of this fowl are the
white fowl with a black crest, the black fowl with a white crest, and the
white fowl with a large beard. Of these the Poland or Polish fowl, repre-

POULTRY, OR THH VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 391

sented below, is the best known, and it appears probable that it is a hybid

between the Crested and the Spanish fowls. ‘These fowls are very hand-

Fig. 231.

i nti Wie WSS
ul MN

Il Le LG

i \ ‘NS 7

some, and excellent for the table ;

; the hens are good layers, producing
large and finely-flavored eggs, but they are bad sitters.

Bantam. — This is a small variety, with short legs, most frequently
feathered to the toes, so as sometimes to obstruct walkiag. The full-bred

Fig. 232.

Bantam cock should have a rose comb, a well-feathered tail, full hackies a

proud, lively carriage, and ought not to weigh more than one pound 6

392 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

nankin-colored and the black are the greatest favorites. If of the latte1
color, the bird should have no feathers of any sort in his plumage. The
nankin bird should have his feathers edged with black, his wings barred
with purple, his tail-feathers black, his hackles slightly studded with pur-
ple, and his breast black, with white edges to the feathers. The hens
should be small, clean-legged, and match in plumage with the cock.

Dwarr, or Creeper. — This variety, which is not larger than a pigeon,
differs from the bantam chiefly in size and in the shortness of its legs. The
Acaho is very small, with a circle of feathers about the legs, a thick tail,
which it carries straight, and the ends of the wings black. In addition to
this, there are some who are obliged to leap, from their legs being so short ;
they are the size of a dunghill fowl, and kept as being very fruitful ; the
hens will hatch thirty eggs at a time.

Rumxin. — This is now considered a distinct species. It is distinguished
by the want of a tail, by the comb not being, in the wild birds, indented,
and by the wattles being blood-colored rather than scarlet ; the feathers are
all of a dusky orange in the wild birds, but finely variegated in the tame
ones.

Frizziep. — A native of Java and Japan. Distinguished by having all the
feathers turned and frizzled, being smaller than our common species, more
wild, and less suitable for domestic purposes. Flesh firm and delicate.

Sitxy. — This is also a distinct species, according to modern writers. It
nas the whole body covered with feathers, the webs of which are so disu-
nited as to appear like hairs or glossy silk ; the general color is white, and
the legs covered wholly on the outside, quite to the toes. As in other vari-
eties, individuals of this sort differ in respect to color.

Russian, or Siper1an.— This breed seems to differ chiefly from others
in having considerable tufts of brown or.dark loose feathers springing from
each jaw, and others, longer or fuller, from the lower jaw. In the hen
there is an upright tuft, spreading from the back of the head, of the same
silky texture. Independently of these, the cock has the usual comb and
wattles, and the hen a small comb also. This sort varies in color, one
variety being white, with the ends of the feathers glossy blue or black,
giving it a spotted appearance, and the legs being covered with fibrous or
downy feathers ; another has the plumage of the game fowl, a fine tawny
orange, spotted with black. :

Barsary. — This African variety is generally of a pale or dun color,
spotted about the neck sparingly with black, and the feathers at that part
very full; on the crown isa large, full tuft of feathers, the same in color
with the body.

Java — Resembling the Malay in shape, but somewhat colored like the

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 393

Dorking. It is probably a cross between the two. In qualities it resembles
the Malay, but is not so valuable as a cross with other breeds.
Ostricu, or Cocuin Cuina. — This variety of fowls completely surpasses,

Fig. 233.

in size and power, the generalrun of poultry. Their general color is rich,
glossy brown, deep bay; on the breast is a marking of a blackish color,

394 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

and of the shape of a horse-shoe ; the comb is of a medium size, serrated,
but not deeply so, and the wattles are double. Besides their gigantic size,
however, these fowls possess other distinctive characteristics, the most strik-
ing of which is, that the wing is jointed so that the posterior half can, at
pleasure, be doubled up, and brought forward between the anterior half and
the body. The eggs are large, chocolate-colored, and of a very delicate
flavor.

GENERAL TREATMENT.

Raising, Breeding, gc. — Hens, if left to their own impulses, would pro-
duce one brood early in spring, the other in autumn. They begin to lay in
February, sooner or jater, partly according to the time of molting, which
means the shedding of the feathers, at which time they lose their high tone
of health, and cease to lay. The season of molting is late in the autumn,
and in consequence of the change in their constitution, while the juices of
the body are promoting the growth of new feathers, no egg secretions are
formed. ‘The molting period, after the third year of the hen’s life, becomes
gradually later and more tedious ; young poultry molt in spring ; no fowl
are fit for the table at such time. The hens lay abundantly in February and
March, which are usually quite as cold as November and December, while
in the latter, unless they have molted very early in autumn, they rarely
yield an egg. Reaumur warmed his fow]-houses by artificial heat, but got
no eggs. Yetastock of poultry, by judicious treatment, may be rendered
prolific during the entire year, by having very early and successive summer
broods, as the pullets (which do not molt in the first year) will lay towards
the close of the year. The first brood may be obtained in January, by care-
ful management. Hot food — boiled potatoes are as good or better than any
other — should always be given, in the winter months, to the hens which are
on the laying list, and which should be kept as dry and warm as possible.

Number of Hens for a Cock.— Vivery experienced fow]-keeper knows that
those eggs only are prolific which are produced by hens which have had con-
stant intercourse with the male, though, for the purposes of the table, they are
better without this intervention, as they are more easily preserved in a state
of freshness. Some writers recommend twelve to twenty females for each
cock, while others consider half that number more desirable. The fact is,
much depends on climate, and the season of the year, a dry and genial tem-
perature favoring a greater number of the hens to the male.

Qualities of a Good Cock. —In selecting a cock, he is considered to have
every requisite quality, when he is of a good middling size ; when he car-
ries his head high, has a quick, animated look, a strong and shrill voice
short bi!l, a fine red comb, shining as if varnished, large wattles, and of the

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 395

same color as the comb, the breast broad, the wings strong, the plumage
black, or obscure red, the thighs very muscular, the legs thick, and fur-
nished with strong spurs, the claws rather bent, and sharply pointed. He
ought also to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the
ground frequently for worms, not so much for himself as for his hens. He
ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens,
quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them
together, and in assembling them at night.

Selecting Hens. — {t is only requisite to have them of middling size, dark
colored, bright eyes, short legs, blue feet, and neither disposed to crow nor
be passionate. Hens that are long-legyed,—and of course ill-formed for
sitting, — with small body, and very limited compass of wings, should be
kept, if kept at all, exclusively for laying. ‘The best age is from two to
four years.

Sitting. — The hen testifies her desire to hatch by making a clucking
noise, searching for eggs to sit upon, and by general restlessness and fever-
ish agitation. When this tendency is not naturally excited, some humane
breeders endeavor to promote the disposition by stimulating applications —
nettles, for instance—to the belly. Hens that have molted very early will
often sit before November, and this is a point gained when chickens are
wanted about Christmas. The eggs for hatching should be fresh, and free
from all offensive smell, and preserved in bran, with their larger end —
which contains the air-bag — uppermost, and under a warm temperature,
for three weeks before they are set. Examine the eggs, by holding them
between the eye and a candle, and if the vacancy caused by the air-bag at
the blunt of the egg appears to be a little on one side, it will produce a
hen ; if this vacancy be exactly in the centre, it will produce a cock. From
nine to fifteen is the number usually placed under the hen, according to her
size. Her nest should be of clean, soft, and short straw, if possible on the
floor, and facing the south, and corn and water should be placed within her
reach; but the food should be removed as soon as she satisfies herself.
Many hens feed but once a day, and some would starve themselves sooner
than leave their eggs in search of food.

Hatching. — The hen sits for three weeks. About the twenty-first day the
chicks chip the shell with the upper bill, which is furnished with a horny
scale ut the end, and gradually extricate themselves from confinement ; fre-
quently they do not disengage themselves from it in less than twenty-fou
hours, or even more ; but it is generally much better not to assist them in
breaking the shell, for if this be done before they have taken in the necessary
supply of sustenance, by the yelk passing into their bodies through the
navel, they will certainly die. It may, however, sometimes be necessary
to afford them aid, for it sometimes happens that their bodies adhere, from

396 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

bad hatching, to the shell, and that their naturally revolving movernents do
not tend to disengage them. They must, in this case, be very tenderly
relieved by the hand.

On the day after they have been hatched, the chicks may be removed from
the nest to a basket, or some similar receptacle, lined with wool, or such
soft, warm substance, though it is perhaps better not to remove them from.
the original nest. For a fortnight they are fed with crumbs of bread soaked
in milk, and thenceforth every day, for some time, with yelks of eggs, curd,
grits, &c., and after a few days they may be allowed to peck about in warm
spots with their mother, but must be guarded from wet. They will soon
feed greedily on meal, crumbs, &c., mixed with a small portion of potatoes,
beet-leaves, parsley, or cabbage.

Fattening. — Fowls in a natural state, picking up what they can get at
the barn-door, are, perhaps, the best-flavored and most wholesome for the
table ; but as it is common, and almost necessary, to practise fattening, we
will treat of that matter.

The most approved coops are those which are divided into solitary cham-
bers, so narrow as to prevent the fowl from turning around, and with an
opening in the rear part for the discharge of the excrement, perfect clean-
liness being indispensable, with meal and milk in a trough, and a little
gravel or brick-dust, to promote digestion, at front. Another practice is,
to cram them with a paste made of flour, or meal, milk, and hog’s lard, or
kitchen-grease, introduced by means of a tube, or by the fingers. In the
course of a fortnight chickens may be rendered sufficiently fat, and of great
weight.

Health of Fowls.—The indications of good health are, a florid color of
the comb, and bright eyes free from moisture, dry nostrils, and bright,
glossy plurnage.

Caponizinc.—This is an art but little understood in the United States,
although a knowledge of the mode of performing it is of equally as much
importance to the farmer as an acquaintance with the process of castra-
ting cattle, horses, and swine. ‘The emasculation of young roosters
exerts a beneficial influence on their condition, rendering them large, fat,
and fine-flavored. The fowls selected for the purpose should be of the
largest breed, and not more than two or three months old, as, at an ad-
vanced age, the mortality is very great. Food and water must be denied
them for thirty-six hours before the time of performing the operation; it
having been observed that a full stomach and bowels has a tendency to
promote bleeding from the wound.

Mode of performing the operation. — Secure the chicken upon its left
side on a table, with its wings clasped behind its back, its legs extended
backward, the upper one more so than the lower, leaving its head and

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 397

neck perfectly free, and then pluck the feathers from the right side, near the
hip-joint, to the extent of an inch square. Draw the skin back, and make
an incision with a bevel-edged knife between the two last ribs, commen-
cing about an inch from the back-bone, and extending obliquely down-
ward about an inch, or an inch and a half; cutting only deep enough to
separate the ribs, without wounding the intestines. Then, having pre-
viously attached a pair of broad, blunt, silver hooks to the ends of a piece
of rattan about six inches long, insert one hook in a lip of the wound,
and, bending the rattan in the form of a bow, attach the second hook to
the opposite margin of the wound; the spring of the bow will keep the
wound open sufficiently wide to afford the operator working-room. This
being done, carefully slit the skin enclosing the intestines, and if the
latter are not sufficiently drawn up toward the breast-bone, push them
forward with the handle of a small silver scoop, formed somewhat like a
tea-spoon, but much smaller, and having a sharp steel hook at the handle
end. With a delicate pair of forceps seize the skin covering the testicles,
and connecting them with the back and sides, and tear it open with the
sharp hook on the end of the scoop. Another instrument is then brought
into requisition, consisting of a tube of some kind of metal, flattened at
one end, through which passes a loop of horse-hair—the loop end extend-
ing a short distance below the flat part of the tube, and the free ends
projecting some distance beyond its opposite end. With the left hand
the lower, or left, testicle is raised up by means of the scoop, while the
loop of horse-hair is passed over it with the right, in such manner as to
encircle the parts connecting it with the back. The free ends of the
horse-hair are then drawn backward and forward, while the tube is
pushed toward the chicken’s rump, and thus the testicle is sawed off.
The same operation is then performed upon the right testicle; after which
the separated testicles, together with the effused blood, are removed with
the scoop, the hooks withdrawn, and the skin closed over the wound,
whick is then covered with the feathers plucked off at the commencement
of the operation. If the side of the chicken afterwards puffs out with
wind, puncture the skin and let it out. Great care must be used in pers
forming the operation, as a careless cut may maim the chicken for life;
and a failure to remove all the substance of the testicles will render the
entire operation of no avail.

II. THE TURKEY.

VARIETIES.

The diversity of color is about all that constitutes the difference of va-
rieties of this bird; — the black, the white, the copper-color, the brown,
34

398 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the bronze, the dusky-gray, &c. As to the relative value of the ordinary
varieties, there is some doubt. The bronze and copper-colored varieties

Fig. 235.

are generally small, and difficult to rear; but their flesh is very delicate
The brown and ashy-gray are not particularly remarkable, but the black
are decidedly superior as regards hardiness, rearing, acquiring flesh, and
the quality of the flesh; they are also very prolific.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT.

Keeping, 4c. — With respect to the best mode of keeping turkeys, it is
necessary to let them have a large, roomy shed, protected from the weather
and from moisture. The perches should be high, and a ladder should be
supplied, as the birds, when fat, are otherwise apt to injure themselves in
their descent from a lofty perch. During warm weather they may be per-
mitted to select their own roosting-places on the trees about a farm, but
should be well watched, lest they stray away, and, in cold weather, get their

ender toes frost-bitten.

The turkey provides itself with food from the roads and hedge-rows:
snails, slugs, and worms, are among the number of its dainties, and the
nearest pool serves to slake its thirst. It should, however, be kept away
from the grain-fields.

Qualities. — In selecting a turkey-cock, see that he is large, stout, proud,

POULTRY, OR THE YARIOUS D{ MESTIC FOWLS. 399

and majestic. Both cock and hen should have short legs, full shapes, and
general vivacity and energy in all their movements, and be healthy. A
turkey-cock is in his prime in his third year; the hen is in her prime
younger, say in her second year.

Laying. — One fecundation, it is said by some, will render all the eggs
of that laying fertile, while others allow one cock to every dozen or fourteen
hens. The approach of the laying season is known by the increased liveli-
ness and proud strut of the hen, and a peculiar self-satisfied cry. This
usually takes place in March. When these symptoms are noticed, a nest
should be provided, and a true or false egg put into it, to induce the hen to
commence laying there, for she prefers a secret place. ‘The time when she
lays is usually the morning ; some lay daily, others only every second day.
When the turkeys are to be let out in the morning, examine the hens, and
keep in such as are about to lay, in order to secure the eggs. While the
hen is laying, the cock should be kept from her, as he would ill-treat her
and break the eggs. The eggs must be taken away as soon as laid, and
they will keep till the hens cease laying, if put in a basket and kept dry.
The hen-turkey will hatch other eggs than her own.

Sitting. —'The same barbarous stimulus, of flogging with a sprig of nettle,
prescribed for hen-fowls not readily disposed to sit, has been tried for turkey-
hens ; and also a dose of brandy and water to make them drunk when they
are placed on the eggs, to insure their sitting on their becoming sober.
The dark-colored turkeys are preferable.

Any number of hens may be placed under the same shed, at short dis-
tances from each other, taking care that they are kept quiet and dark, as well
as warm. The nest may be formed of a circular pad or roll, stuffed with
matted straw, and about fifteen inches in diameter; the inside being filled
with soft bruised straw, on which the eggs are laid, which, being secured
by the border, will not roll about when the hen makes a motion to get in
and out of her nest, or turn her eggs.

Hatching. — When several hens hatch at the same time, commencing
together, it is obvious that if any accident should happen to one of them,
the eggs may be at once transferred to some of the other nests, the evening
being the proper time for this, so that on the morrow the new-comer may
appear to be of her own family.

On the thirty-first or thirty-second day, the chicks, as in the case of
fowls, will chip and break their shells, and get out, unless prevented by the
adhesion of the body to the pellicle of the shell. When (and this direction
equally applies to all poultry) a small hole is perceived in the shell, through
which the bill can be seen, and the chicken appears unable to break through
the shell completely, the shell should be slightly and gently broken on the

400 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

outside, and lifted up with the point of a pin, but with care not to touch the
chick.

Treatment of the Young.— A few drops of wine are frequently given to
reanimate drooping chicks, and some recommend bread soaked in wine for
them at first; but the natural warmth of the mother’s body is the best
physician, and this they should as quickly as possible enjoy, as the external
atmosphere is so cold compared with that in which they previously existed.
The early feeding of young turkeys is very similar to that which we have
recommended for fowls. Egg is a favorite food for them. They may very
soon have nettles and parsley made into balls, with groats or meal boiled to
the consistence of stirabout, which they learn to peck from the hand. As
the mother is very stupid, and does not teach her little ones to search for
food, a keeper is necessary for young turkeys, in order to feed them fre-
quently, to take them out airing after the dew is off the ground, and place
them in shelter, either from the hot sun or rain, for six weeks, when they
become pretty hardy, and can eat boiled potatoes mixed with their meal.
The membranes of the neck and head now shoot the red, as it is termed,
and at this critical period poults require very high feeding. After harvest,
turkey poults— which name they receive after two months — are driven in
large flocks to pasture and stubble fields, where they learn to pick up insects
and grains of corn; and then they are quite independent of the maternal
wing, and flock with the older turkeys, and roost with and accompany them.
But care should be taken to have shade or shelter always at hand for them
during the sultry hours of the day, and when rain is falling.

Fattening. — After six months, turkeys may be crammed like fowls, with
the same kind of food, but need not be so closely confined, though a dark
place is recommended for them. It requires six weeks to render turkeys
perfectly fat, and it would be barbarous to confine them in pens so long ;
they may be left in close farm-yards. ‘To have very large turkeys, cocks
should be kept over for fattening until they are nearly two years old; but a
young hen-turkey in spring is much better in flavor.

Feeding. —In their ordinary run about the farmer’s yards and fields,
turkeys nearly feed themselves sufficiently; if not, they will do so by
scattering among them, in the morning, oats or corn. Boiled potatoes or
Swedish turnips greatly assist in the support of a flock of turkeys.

Ill. THE GOOSE.
VARIETIES.
Tovtouse.— The varieties of the common domestic goose are very
few. Amongst these varieties is that of the Toulouse, chiefly remarkable
for its vast size. Its color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars and

"es

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 401

eecasionally relieved with black— the head, neck as far as the beginning
of the breast, and the back of the neck as far as the shoulders, of a
dark brown ; the breast is slaty blue; the belly is white, as also the under

Fig. 236.

surface of the tail; the bill is orange-red, and the feet are flesh-color. The
Toulouse is of a mild and easy disposition, which conduces to the chance of
his early fattening, and that also at little cost. The flesh is said to be
tender and well-flavored.

Cuinese.— The Chinese goose is a well-known variety, including several
sub sorts, among which is the Hong Kong, considered the same as is called
by the name of Poland, having a large, horny knob on the bill and forehead,
the prevailing color gray, with a longitudinal stripe of deep brown running
above the back of the neek, — the legs red. There are also the Black-legged
Chinese, also knobbed, and usually with a white edge around the knob,
somewhat similar to that of the wild breed called the White Fronted, — and
the White Chinese, a very handsome bird, knobbed as the rest, of a snow-
white color, and with legs of a bright orange-red.

These geese are inferior in size to the ‘Toulouse, but, nevertheless, very
fine birds, and worthy the attention of the breeder. The white variety,
especially, with red legs, is very beautiful ; the flesh is also good. They
feed well, fatten easily, and are very prolific.

Common. — Of our ordinary and well-known domestic geese there exist
but two sorts, whose only distinction seems to rest in their relative size,
they being divided into the /argeand small; and by some, accordir g to their
color, into the white and the gray. ‘These divisions are, to a certain extent,

34* 2A

402 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

arbitrary ; as ou, of the one clutch may be generally found the several vari-
eties, both as to size and color, that are sought for. The best sorts are

Fig. 237.

those which vary least in color. Gray is the best; méxed colors will not
prove so prolific, and the young will be more difficult to feed up to the re-
quired standard.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT.

In France, geese are put up in thirties in the same lodge, with roofs and
partitions to separate them, never allowing more than eight under one roof.
All damp must be avoided, for geese at all times are fond of a clean, dry
place to sleep in, however much they may like to swim in water. It is
not a good plan, on the whole, to keep geese with other poultry; for, when
confined in the poultry-yard, they become very pugnacious, and will very
much harass the hens and turkeys. It is recommended to pasture geese in
marshy or moist ground, and to sow for them vetches or tares, meliot,
clover, chicory, and lettuce, of which they are very fond. Grass they
should also have, and they are satisfied with the poorest. In allowing geese
to range at large, it must be remembered that they are very destructive to all
garden and farm crops, as well as to young fruit-trees. To prevent their
getting through the gaps in fences, hang a stick across their breasts.

Food. — Did geese require to be always fed in the poultry-yard, it would
cost more than they are worth to keep them, for they are voracious feeders.
All sorts of vegetables, food, and grain, agree with them, but they do not

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 403

thrive well without grass. The refuse of the cabbage of a market-garden
would maintain a great many geese at avery small cost, but it is very
doubtful whether they would keep long in good health, when fed either on
cabbage, mangel-wurzel leaves, chicory, endive, lettuce, or other green
food. This, indeed, is apt to render their bowels too open, and even to
bring on scouring, unless alternated with boiled or steamed potatoes, given
warm, or with the meal of oats, peas, beans, or maize, beaten up with
boiled potatoes, carrots, or turnips.

The stubble-fields of any sort of grain are excellent pasture for geese, for
there they not only find grass and other herbage, but the grain which may
have been scattered, and which would otherwise be lost; while their dung,
though at first acrid and apt to injure, will, when it has been mellowed,
much enrich the ground.

Pairing. — It has been ascertained by M. St. Genis that geese will pair
like pigeons and partridges; and, in the course of his experiments, he re-
marked that, if the number of the ganders exceed that of the geese by
two, and even by three, including the common father, no disturbance nor
disputes occur, the pairing taking place without any noise, and no doubt by
mutual choice.

It is usual, in books, as well as in practice, to assign six geese to one
gander. In some places, the small farmers who keep two or three geese
keep no gander at all, but turn their geese, at the breeding season, for a
short period, among the ganders of some larger establishment near them.
This, however, must render the eggs of doubtful fertility, though, no doubt,
it would not be practised, if it were found to be an unprofitable plan. The
gander to be selected should be of a large size, of a fine white, with a lively
eye, and an active gait; while the breeding goose ought to be brown, ash-
gray, or parti-colored, and to have a broad foot. The gray geese are sup-
posed to produce the finest goslings, while the parti-colored ones produce
better feathers, and are not so apt to stray from home.

Laying.— When well kept, geese will lay thrice a year, from five to
twelve eggs each time ; and some more, when they are left to their own
way: but if the eggs be carefully removed as soon as laid, a guose may be
made, by proper feeding, to lay from twenty to fifty eggs without intermit-
ting. They begin to lay early in spring, usually in March; and it may be
known when an individual is about to lay, by her carrying straws about to
form her nest with; but, sometimes, she will only throw them about.
When this is observed, the geese should be watched, lest they lay in some
by-place, and the eggs be lost. It is an essential precaution, as soon as it
is perceived that geese want to lay, to coop them up under their roof, where
nests made of straw have been previously prepared. If they can once be

404 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

induced to lay in this nest, they will continue todo so till their number of
eggs is completed. In order to have early goslings, geese should be brought
to lay early by keeping them in a warm, clean place, and feeding them on
stimulating food.

Hatching. — When a goose, at the laying of each egg, is observed to keep
in her nest longer than usual, it is a pretty sure indication that she is desir-
ous of hatching. It isa popular but incorrect opinion, that a goose always
knows her own eggs, and will not hatch any others.

The nest for hatching should be made of straw, lined with hay, and
from fifteen to twenty eggs will be as many as a large goose can conven-
iently cover.

The goose sits for two months, and requires to have food and water placed
near her, that she may not be so long absent as to allow the eggs to cool,
which might cause her to abandon her task. Sore put vinegar in their
water, and others lift them off their nests to make them drink ; but this is
not necessary.

It is an economical way of getting a great number of goslings, to employ
turkey-hens to hatch. The common fow] has been equally praised for filling
this important function; but the eggs of the goose being very large, and
their shell very hard, a hen is not bulky enough to hatch more than eight
ornine. The turkey-hen, therefore, deserves to be preferred, because she
can hatch fourteen or fifteen. This function of the goose being thus filled
by another, she is not kept from laying, and yields eggs in abundance.

Goslings. — Like turkey-chickens, goslings are a month in hatching,
and must be taken from under the mother, lest if, feeling the young ones
under her, she might perhaps leave the rest of the tardy brood unhatched.
After having separated them from her, they must be kept in flat wicker
pens, or baskets, covered with a cloth, and lined with wool ; and when the
whole brood is come forth, the first hatched may be returned to the mother.
In some places, when the eggs of the goose are on the point of being
hatched, it is customary to break the shell a little, to give air to the gosling,
and to help its coming out. Perhaps this practice, though dangerous to
turkey-chickens, is less so to the goose’s egg, whose shell is commonly
very hard. On the first day after the goslings are hatched, they may be let
out, if the weather be warm, care being taken not to let them be exposed to
the unshaded heat of the sun, which might kill them. The food given them
is prepared with bran, raspings of bread, &c., which, if soaked and boiled in
milk, or curdled milk, and lettuce-leaves, are still better.

Afterwards, advantage must be taken of a fine warm sun to turn them out
for a few hours; but cold and rain being very hurtful to them, they must in
bad weather be cooped up, and prevented from mixing with the larger ones

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 405

unless they have strength enough to defend themselves against any hostile
attack, to which new-comers are usually exposed. Tosuch goslings as area
little strong, bran may be given twice a day, morning and evening, continu-
ing to give them this food until the wings begin to cross on the back ; and
after this, green food, which they are particularly fond of, may be mixed
with it, such as lettuce, beet-leaves, and the like.

Fattening. — Like other fowls, geese may be brought, by proper manage-
ment, to a great degree of fatness; but the period at which they are the fat-
test must be chosen to kill them, otherwise they will rapidly become lean
again, and many of them would die. Geese may be fattened at two different
periods of their life, —in the young state, when they are termed green
geese, and after they have attained their full growth. The methods at each
period are very nearly the same.

For fattening geese, — boiled oats, given thrice a day, with plenty of
milk, will, it is said, fatten them well in a month. For stubble geese,
besides oats, give split beans, with meal and water, cooping up in a quiet,
dark place, as is done with fowls. 'The London feeders, when they receive
goslings in March, begin feeding them on meal, from the best barley and
oats, made into a liquid paste. They are afterwards fed on dry corn, to
render their fat firmer. Full-grown geese are kept particularly clean, have
regular exercise, and are fed with proportional quantities of dry, soft, and
green food. Cabbage and lettuce alone will fatten young geese, bought in
the end of June. Some persons recommend steamed potatoes, with a gal-
lon of buckwheat or ground oats to the bushel, mashed up with the potatoes,
and given warm. This, it is said, will render geese, cooped in a dark,
quiet, cool place, fat enough in three weeks. The French mode of fattening
consists in plucking the feathers from under the belly, giving them abundance
of food and drink, and cooping them up more closely than is practised with
common fowls, cleanliness and quiet being above all indispensable. The best
time is in the month of November, or when the cold weather begins to set
in; if it is longer delayed, the pairing season approaches, and prevents their
becoming fat. When there are not many geese to fatten, they are put into
a cask having holes bored in it, through which they may thrust their heads
to feed; and being naturally voracious, the love of food is greater than the
love of liberty, and they fatten readily. The food consists of a paste, made
of barley-meal, ground maize, and buckwheat, with milk and boiled potatoes
In Poland, a similar method is practised, the goose being put in an earthen
pot without a bottom, and of a size not to allow the bird to move. The
same food as that just mentioned is given in abundance, and the pot is so
placed that the dung may not remain in it. The process is completed in a fort-

406 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

night, and the geese are sometimes so increased in size that the pot has to
be broken to get them out.

When the great number of geese to be fattened renders the preceding
plan inconvenient and too expensive, they are taken from the stubbles or
pasture, and cooped up, twelve together, in narrow pens, so low that they
can neither stand upright nor move in any direction. They are kept
scrupulously clean, by often renewing the litter of the pens. A few feathers
are previously plucked out from the rump, and from under the wings. The
portion of maize required for once feeding is boiled and put into a feeding-
trough, with clean water, in a separate vessel, and they are permitted to eat
whenever they feel inclined. At the commencement they eat a great deal
constantly, but in about three weeks their appetite falls off. As soon as this
is perceived, they are crammed, at first twice a day, and, towards the end
of the process, thrice a day. For this purpose a tin funnel is used, with a
pipe five inches and a half in length, and less than an inch in diameter, with
the end sloped off like the mouth-piece of a flageolet, and rounded at the
edge, to prevent its scratching the throat when it is introduced. A small,
round bag is adjusted to the pipe, through which grain is introduced into the
crop. The operator sits squat upon the ground, holds the goose with one
hand, introduces the pipe of the funnel into the mouth of the goose with the
other, and presses in the food till the crop is filled. Water is at the same
time given to the geese to drink, and must always be left near them, as the
cramming renders them very thirsty. A woman who is dexterous will
cram ten geese in an hour. In less than a month, a goose may in this way
be fattened to an enormous bulk.

Sometimes a lean goose is confined in a small coop made of fir, narrow
enough to prevent it from turning, while there is a place behind for passing
the dung, and another in front to let out the head. Water is supplied in a
trough in front, having some bits of charcoal in it to sweeten it. A bushel
of maize is considered enough of food for a month. It is soaked in water
the day before it is used; and the goose is crammed morning and: evening,
while it is allowed, during the day, to eat and drink as much as it chooses.
About the twenty-second day, a quantity of poppy-oil is mixed with the
maize. In a month, it is seized with difficulty of breathing, and a lump of
fat under each wing indicates that it is time to kill it, lest it should be choked
with fat, and die.

By this process, the liver of the goose is increased so much that it will
weigh frorn one to two pounds, and will, besides, yield about three pounds of
fat, much employed, in French cookery, for dressing vegetables.

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 407

IV. THE DUCK.
VARIETIES.

Roven, or Ruone. — There are numerous species and varieties of the duck,
of great diversity of size and color, though it is not usual to domesticate, ex-
cept for curiosity, more than two or three of these. The tame variety most in
request is the dark-colored Rouen or Rhone duck, originally from France,

Fig. 238.

but now sufficiently common. These ought to be of the largest size, for, if
they are small, it is probable they are not far removed from the original wild
breed, and in that case will not only be very apt to stray away, but will be less
prolific in eggs, though both the eggs and the flesh will be higher flavored
Encuisn, or AyLessury Wuite.— This variety, though handsome and
strong, is inferior in flavor, the flesh being too light-colored, and chickeny. as it
is termed. Great numbers of this variety are, however, raised and fattened,

attaining to a large size.
Fig. 239.

408 FiRMER’S HAND-BOOK,

Muscovy. — This duck is a distinct species, and not a mere variety, much
1arger than the common duck, and distinguished by a sort of red mercbrane,
covering the cheeks, and extending behind the eyes, as well as by the
musky odor exhaled by the rump gland. Ina wild state, the drake 1s of a
brownish-black color, with a broad white patch on the wings, the female
being smaller and more obscurely colored. In the domestic state it exhibits
every variety of color, like the common duck. The Muscovy duck is easily
fattened, and a prolific breeder ; and hence, though it is also a voracious feeder,

Fig. 240.

it may be rendered profitable to rear. The male is very ready to pair with
the common duck, producing, by the cross, a hybrid or mongrel breed.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT.

The Duck Pond.—In order to keep ducks properly, a pond should he
provided for them, if there be no water convenient ; and it is important, if
the pond will admit of it, to have a small island in it, planted with rushes,
osiers, and other aquatic plants and shrubs, though some recommend to have
no plants in the way.

Food. — Ducks may be left to provide for themselves a considerable part
of the year. They live chiefly on grain strewed about the poultry-yard,
the siftings and sweepings of barns, all sorts of mealy substances, the
residue of breweries and boiling-houses, herbage, vegetable roots, fruits, —
everything, indeed, suits them, provided it be rather moist. They are par-
ticularly fond of boiled potatoes, and these have been substituted, with profit,
for maize and barley. They are partial to being in meadows and pasture

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 409

grounds Every sort of flesh or offal is much to theiz liking, and forwards
their growth admirably. Ducks are so very greedy that they often endeavor
to swallow a whole fish, or a frog, which heats them extremely, if they do
not immediately throw it up. Particularly fond of meat, they eat it with
avidity, even when it is tainted. Slugs, spiders, toads, garbage, insects, all
suit their ravenous appetite. Among all the fowls of the poultry-yard, ducks
are of most service in gardens, by destroying a quantity of vermin, which
usually do irreparable damage ; but their voracity brings with it inconven-
iences which balance this advantage, except in the case of ducklings,
which are not so apt to eat young plants.

Pairing and Laying. — One drake is said to be sufficient for eight to ten
ducks, while others limit the number to from four to six. In a wild state
there is only one duck to a drake, and, therefore, we should say, the fewer
the better, —the chief difference of the.tame duck from the wild arising
from more abundant and regular food.

Ducks begin to lay towards the end of February, and sometimes earlier ;
but so far from laying the limited number of about sixteen eggs, some will
lay as many as fifty, and even nearly double that number. They do not,
however, usually continue to lay later than the month of May, unless they
be very well fed,—the great secret of rendering them prolific, provided
they do not become too fat.

At the laying season, ducks require to be looked after, inasmuch as they
are not so easily brought to lay in the nests prepared for them as common
fowls, but will stray away to hedges and other by-places to lay, and will
even sometimes drop their eggs in the water. When they succeed in laying
out their number of eggs without their nest being discovered, they will
hatch them, and not make their appearance till they bring their young
family home to the yard, except in cold, raw weather. As ducks usually
lay either at night or very early in the morning, it is a good way to secure
their eggs, to confine them during the period when they must lay, — a cir-
cumstance easily ascertained by feeling the vent, It will accordingly be
requisite, at the approach of the laying season, in spring, to give them food
in a particular place, three or four times a day, to prevent them from wan-
dering ; and when once they can be got to Jay in a nest prepared for them,
they will probably continue to do so, without laying away.

Duck Eggs. — The eggs of the duck are readily known from those of the
common fow] by their bluish color and larger size, the shell being smoother,
not so thick, and with much fewer pores. When boiled, the white is never
eurdy, like that of a new-laid hen’s egg, but transparent and glassy, while the
yelk is much darker in color. , The flavor is by no means so delicate. For
omelets, however, as well as for puddings and pastry, duck eggs are much

410 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

better than hen’s eggs, giving a finer color and flavor, and requiring less
butter.

Hatching and Care of Ducklings. — 'The domestic duck is not naturally
disposed to hatch; but in order to induce it to do so, towards the end of ;
laying, two or three other eggs may be left in each nest, taking care every
morning to take away the oldest laid, that they may not be spoiled. From
eight eggs to ten may be given, according to the size of the duck and her
ability to cover them, taking particular care not to sprinkle them with cold
water, as some authors wrongly advise. The duck requires some care
when she sits; for, as she cannot go to her food, attention must be paid to
place it before her—and she will be content with it, whatever be its quality.
It has even been remarked, that when ducks are too well fed, they will not
sit well.

The first broods of the season are usually the best, because the heat of
summer helps much to strengthen the ducklings, — the cold always prevent-
ing the later broods from getting strong.

The duck is apt to let her eggs get cold, when she hatches. The duck-
lings are no sooner excluded than the mother takes them to the water,
where they dabble and eat at the very first, and many of them perish; if the
weather is cold.

All these reasons often induce poultry-keepers to have duck’s eggs
hatched by hens or turkey-hens; and, being more assiduous than ducks,
these borrowed mothers take an affection for the young, to watch over
which requires great attention, because, as these are unable to accompany
them on the water, — for which they show the greatest propensity as soon as
they are excluded, — they follow the mother hen on dry land, and get a
little hardy, before they are allowed to take to the water without any guide.

It is likely that, if a considerable quantity of eggs could be collected
together, to make one large brood, the art of hatching chickens in an arti-
ficial manner, applied to ducks, would be attended with greater success than
with chickens, as they are less difficult to rear. It would be sufficient to
keep them shut up for twelve days in a duck-house made on purpuse, and
where it would be proper to leave a few buckets of water for them to dabble
in, —or a tank might be provided for them, the water of which might be kept
slightly warm by the pipes used to heat the buildings of the poultry-yard.
At the expiration of this time they might be set at liberty, and they would
get on surprisingly, provided they had a pond or a little ditch in the enclos-
ure, where they might be turned in, or a small rivulet running through it.
Ducklings can do without a mother as soon as they are excluded. Their
food, for the first days, may be crumbled bread sopped in milk, and a little
ale or cider. Some days after, a paste may be made for them with a bunch

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 411

of nett.e-leaves, boiled tender, chopped up very small, and of a third of the
flour of maize, buckwheat, or barley.

As soon as they have a little strength, a good deal of pot-herbs may be
given them, raw and chopped up, mixed with a little bran soaked in water,
barley, mashed acorns, boiled potatoes, beaten up with a little fish, when it
ean be had. All these equally agree with ducklings, which devour the dif-
ferent substances they meet with, and show, from their most tender age, a
voracity which they always retain. To strengthen the young ones before
they take to the water, they must be secured under coops during eight or
ten days, and taking care to put a little water under the coops.

When ducklings have been hatched under a common hen, or a turkey-
hen, they are not allowed to go to the water till they become a little hardy
by remaining on land; but the moment they see water, they naturally
plunge into it, to the great alarm of their foster-mother, who cannot follow
them. It is necessary, to prevent accidents, to take care that such duck-
lings come regularly home every evening ; but precautions must be taken
before the ducklings are permitted to mingle with the old ducks, lest the
latter ill-treat and kill them, though ducks are by no means so pugnacious
and jealous of new-comers as common fowls uniformly are.

Fattening. — Butchers’ offal is excellent for fattening ducks, as it does
not give the flesh the rank, disagreeable flavor, which it imparts to pork.
Acorns, on the contrary, while they are good for fattening, injure the flavor
of the flesh, and barley renders it insipid, or woolly.

As the duck is both a voracious feeder and fond of liberty, it will fatten
very well when allowed to roam about, provided it has abundance of food ;
but it expedites the process of fattening to have recourse to coops, quiet,
and darkness. Ground malt, mixed with water, is said to be an excellent
food for fattening, though it is expensive. In Lower Normandy, where
great numbers of ducks are reared and fattened, the poulterer prepares a
paste with the flour of buckwheat, made into gobbets, with which they
are crammed thrice a day, for eight or ten days, when, though not full fat,
they are sufficiently so for use. In some places, when ducks have been
rendered tolerably fat by being at large, they are cooped up by eights or
tens, in a dark place, whence they are taken out morning and evening to be
crammed. This is done by a girl, who crosses their wings on her knees,
opens their bill with her left hand, while with her right she stuff them
with boiled maize. Many ducks are suffocated by the operation, and killed
outright ; but their flesh is not the worse for the table, provided that they be
immediately bled. It requires a fortnight to complete the process, which
inereases the size of their liver enormously, and oppresses their breathing in

412 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

a distressing manner. The sign of their being sufficiently fat is, when the
tail opens like a fan, from the fat pressing on the roots of the feathers.

DISEASES OF THE FOREGOING FOWLS.
’

The most common diseases to which fowl are liable are, Molting, Pip,
Roup, Asthma, Diarrhea, Indigestion, Apoplexy, Fever, Consumption,
Gout, Corns, Bloody-flux, Costiveness. They are also liable to accidents,
producing Fractures, Bruises, Ulcers, Loss of Feathers, &c. All these
we will treat of in the above order.

Molting. — While, as being a natural process, of annual occurrence, it
can scarcely be called a disease, yet it must be treated of as if it really were
one, from consideration of the effects which it produces. It is most danger-
ous to young chickens. With adult birds, warmth and shelter are usually
all that are required, united with diet of a somewhat extra stimulating and
nutritious character.

In a state of nature, molting occurs to wild birds precisely when their
food is most plenty ; hence, nature herself points out that the fowl should,
during that period, be furnished with an extra quantity of food. After the
third year, the period of molting becomes later and later, until it will some-
times happen in January or February. Of course, when this occurs, every
care as to warmth should be bestowed. The use of Cayenne pepper alone
will generally suffice; and if this simple treatment does not help them
through, they can seldom be saved.

The feathers will at times drop off the fowls, when not molting, to a
very considerable extent, rendering them often nearly naked. This is a
disorder similar to the mange in many other animals; and the same sort of
treatment, viz., alteratives, such as sulphur and nitre, — in the proportions
of one quarter each, mixed with fresh butter, —a change of diet, cleanliness,
and fresh air, will generally be found sufficient to effect a cure. Be careful
not to confound this affection with molting. The distinction is, that in the
latter case the feathers are replaced by new ones as fast as they are cast; in
the former this is not so, and the animal becomes bald.

Pip. — A disease to which young fowls are peculiarly liable, and that,
too, chiefly in hot weather. The symptoms are, a thickening of the mem-
brane of the tongue, especially towards the tip. This speedily becomes an
obstruction of sufficient magnitude to impede the breathing; this produces
gasping for breath, and at this stage the beak will often be held open. The
plumage becomes ruffled and neglected, especially about the head and neck.
The appetite gradually goes, and the poor bird shows its distress by pining.
moping, and seeking solitude and darkness.

The cause of this disease is want of clean water, and feeding upon hot

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 413

food. Tocure it, most writers recommend the immediate removal of the
thickened membrane. It is better, however, to anoint the part with fresh
butter or cream. Prick the scab with a needle, if you like, and give inter-
nally a pill, about the size of a marble, composed of equal parts of scraped
garlic and horse-radish, with as much Cayenne pepper as will outweigh a
grain of wheat. Mix with fresh butter, and give it every morning, keeping
the fowl warm. Keep the bird supplied with plenty of fresh water ; preserve
it from molestation by keeping it by itself, and it will generally get well,
if the disease is attended to in time. Do not cram the mouth with snuff;
when, however, the disease depends on the presence of a worm, forcing
tobacco-smoke down the bird's throat is beneficial.

Roup.— The disease to which this term is improperly applied is an
inflammation of the tail gland. The true Roup is much analogous to influ-
enza in man, and even more so to the well-known distemper among dogs.
The symptoms are, a difficulty of breathing, constant gaping, dimness of
sight, lividity of the eyelids, a discharge from the nostrils that gradually
becomes purulent and fetid, loss of appetite, and extreme thirst. Some-
times this disease appears to occur independently of any obvious cause ; but
dirt, too hot feeding, and want of exercise, are amongst the most usual.

As to treatment, we will record a case related by an intelligent farmer.
A cock, of about four or five months old, apparently turned out by some-
body to die, came astray, and was in the last stage of'roup. The discharge
from his mouth and nostrils was very considerable, and extremely pungent
and fetid, while his eyes appeared to be affected with an inflammation sim-
ilar to Egyptian ophthalmia. The cock was placed at the fireside, his
mouth and nostrils washed with soap and warm water, his eyes washed
with warm milk and water, and the head gently rubbed with a dry cloth.
Internally he was given long pellets, formed of barley meal and flour equal
parts, mustard and grated ginger equal parts, and half the first-named. He
was also given to drink lukewarm water, sweetened with treacle. In three
days this bird began to see, and in a week his sight was almost wholly
restored. A little mustard was still given him in his water, and then some
flour of sulphur. He had also a pinch of calomel in some dough. He was
gradually brought out, so as to inure him to the cold, and in a month was
as well as ever. Having molted late, the same bird caught cold at the first
frost, and suffered a relapse, from which, however, he was recovered by
warmth alone.

Other poultry-keepers recommend a modification of the above, — warmth
and cleanliness, as matters of course ; — but, for pellets, — powdered gen-
tian 1 part, do. ginger 1 part, Epsom salts 14 part, flour of sulphur 4 part,
— made up with butter, and given every morning.

35 *

414 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

If the discharge should become fetid, the mouth, nostrils, and eyes, may
be bathed with a weak solution, composed of equal parts of chloride of lime
and acetate of lead. Fomentation with an infusion of camomile flowers is
highly beneficial.

The other affection, that improperly passes under this name, viz., swell-
ing of the tail-gland, may be treated as a bod/. If it become inconveniently
hard and ripe, let the pus or matter out with a penknife, and it will soon get
well.

Asthma. — This is characterized by gaping, panting, and difficulty of
breathing. We need not go far to seek fora cause. Our poultry are origin-
ally natives of tropical climates; and, however well] climatized they may
appear, they nevertheless require a more equable temperature than our
climate, unaided by artificial means, can afford. Hence, coughs, colds,
catarrh, asthma, pulmonary consumption. ‘To remedy it, give warmth,
with small repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur, mixed with butter,
and add Cayenne pepper.

Diarrhea is occasioned by damp, and sometimes by improper food.
Remove the bird into dry quarters; change the food; if it become very
severe, give chalk; add a little starch, mixed with Cayenne, to porridge,
and give it warm.

Indigestion. — Caused by over-feeding, and want of exercise. Remedy
by lessening the quantity of food ; turn the fowl into an open walk, and give
some powdered gentian and Cayenne in the food.

Apoplecy. — Symptoms — staggering, shaking of the head, and a sort of
tipsy aspect. Some persons have, from ignorance of the true cause of this
affection, treated it as proceeding from intestinal irritation, and prescribed
castor-oil, with syrup of ginger, &c. Scanty food, and that of light quality,
and the application of leeches to the back of the neck, constitute an effect-
ual remedy, — the knife, however, is the truest one.

Sever. — Fowls are frequently subject to febrile affections. The mode of
treatment is simple— light food and Kittle of it, change of air, and, if neces-
sary, aperient medicines, such as castor-vil, with a little burnt butter.

Consumption. — If not incurable, change of air and warmth is about the
only means of doing any good.

Gout. — Its effects are obvious. Pellets of colocynth may be used; but,
if the fowl had been killed before becoming so old, it would have been
better. Sulphur may be found useful.

Corns. —These may generally be extracted with the point of a pen-knife
If ulcerated, as will often occur when neglected, touch with lunar-caustic
and you may thus succeed in establishing healthy granulations.

POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 415

Bloody-flux generally proceeds from an aggravated diarrliea. Rice
boiled in milk, or starch, usually effects a cure.

Costiveness. — This affection will, in general, yield to castor-oil and
burned butter. The diet should be sparing. ‘Thin porridge will be found
useful.

Fractures and Bruises. — In the case of fractures, the best way, in most
cases, is to put the fowl to death, without loss of time. ‘The same may be
said of bruises.

Ulcers. —'These may be kept clean, dressed with a little lard, or washed
with a weak solution of sugar of lead, as their aspect may seem to indicate.
If they appear sluggish, they may be touched with bluestone.

Loss of Feathers. — The accidental stripping of the feathers must not be
confounded with the mangy affection already treated of. The difference
will be seen by examining the state of the skin where it is exposed.

Peacocks and Guinea Hens.—Although now comparatively common,
these two birds are more raised for their appearance than for mere profit.
The Peacock has always been admired for its magnificent plumage. Its
flesh is dark colored and coarse grained. The flesh of the Guinea
Hen though dark, is tender and of a fine flavor. As the both of these

birds are difficult to rear, they can never become popular barnyard
favorites.

CHAPTER IX.
BEES AND SILKWORMS.

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEES—POSITION OF THE APIARY—HIVES AND BOXES
—OBTAINING STOCK — SWARMING — THE HONEY HARVEST— MANAGEMENT
DURING WINTER AND EARLY SPRING—HOW TO TREAT THE PRODUCE OF THE
HONEY HARVEST—THE DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES—SILKWORMS.

I. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEES.

The Queen. — The number of bees contained in a hive will, of course,
vary with their condition, and the accommodations they possess; whatever,
however, be their numbers, their occupations are alike, and are similarly
distributed amongst the three classes composing the inmates of the hive.
These classes are, first, the Queen-bee, the sovereign of the community, and
literally the prolific parent of her subjects. The queen-bee reigns alone ;
but one of her sex is permitted to exist in a hive at the one time, and to
her protection and comfort are the energies of the other bees to be directed.
The queen-bee mav be recognized by her greater length of body, which is

Fig. 241.

of a blackish color above, and of a yellowish tint beneath. She is usually,
but not by any means invariably, of a larger size than either of the other
classes ; her abdomen contains two ovaries, or receptacles for eggs ; and her
sting is of acurved form. ‘he queen-bee commences depositing her eggs
when five days old; during the heat of the season she lays from one hundred
and fifty to two hundred eggs per day, and lays with little or no intermission

from early spring to the middle of autumn,
(416)

BEES. 417

The Drone.— The second class of bees are the drones. ‘These are larger
in the body than either the queen or the working-bee. Their head is rounder,
proboscis shorter, eyes fuller, and no sting. ‘They also make more noise in
flying than the other bees. The drones are the males of the hive; by

Fig. 242,

them the queen is impregnated and her eggs fertilized, though this latter
may be said to be a point not yet definitely settled by those who have inves-
tigated the subject.

During the summer the drones remain dispersed through different parts
of the hive, in a state of idleness; but towards its close they assemble
together in companies, as if preparing for their impending fate, which they
await in patience, or rather, perhaps, in motionless lethargy. At the end
of summer, in August or the end of July, they are ignominiously expelled
from the hive, and even slain, by the workers, as if they, being no longer of
any utility to the community, should not be fed from the store during
winter.

The Working-bee.— The third class is the working-bee, the most inter-
esting of all. It is considerably less than either the queen-bee or the drone ;
it is about half an inch in length, of a blackish-brown color, covered with
closely-set hairs all over the body, which aid it in carrying the farina it
gathers from the flowers ; and on the fore-arm, as it were, of the hind legs,

Fig. 243.

ie a cavity, of cup-like form, for the reception of the little kneaded bal! of

pollen. It is the working-bee which collects honey and pollen, and wh‘ch

forms the celJs, cleans out the hive, protects the queen, looks after the con-

dition of the young brood, destroys or expels the drones, when those are no

longer necessary to the well-being of the community ; who, in sl ort, performs
2B

418 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

all offices connected with the hive and its contents, save only those which
have reference to the reproduction of the species. ‘The working-bees are of
no sex, and are furnished with a horny and hollow sting, through which
poison is ejected into the wound it makes. This poison is of an acrid
character, and of great power in its effects, proving fatal to insects, and
instances are on record of its proving so to horses and cattle, and even tc
human beings. When human beings, however, are stung, they can instan-
taneously obtain relief by pressing upon the point stung with the tube of a
key; this will extract the sting, and relieve the pain, and spirits of harts-
horn will at once remove it. _

Structure of the Bee. —It is composed, like insects generally, of three
parts — the head, thorax or chest, and abdomen. The shape of the head
varies somewhat, as also does its size, in the three classes; it is attached to
the thorax by a thin ligament, and the thorax is attached in a simi-
lar manner to the abdomen. In front of the head are two eyes, which
are protected by hairs from any substances that might otherwise injure
them, and on the top of the head are three smaller eyes. This visual
apparatus renders the bee’s power of sight a very extended one. Two
feelers spring from between the front eyes, and curve outwards on each
side; these are endowed with a very acute sense of touch, and doubtless
perform many of the offices of eyes in the dark recesses of the hive. It
is probably by the assistance of these delicate and highly sensitive organs
that these insects form their combs, fill their cells, and feed the young.
The mouth of the bee is composed of a pair of jaws, which open vertically,
and act — opening and shutting — to the right and left. ‘These are fur-
nished with teeth at their extremities. The mouth is also furnished with a
very minute tongue, and with a long, slender instrument, called a proboscis,
or trunk, resembling in form and use that of the elephant; it is composed
of numerous cartilaginous rings, fringed with minute hairs. This instru-
ment does not, however, act as a tube, but by rolling about and attaching to
the hairs which fringe it whatever substances the insect wishes to convey
to the mouth. From about the base of the proboscis also arise the labial
feelers, as they are called, which are also furnished with a hairy fringe.

The bee has three pairs of legs, of which the posterior are the longest,
and the anterior the shortest. ‘These are formed and articulated much like
the same limbs in man, and are attached to the thorax; at their extrem-
ities we find two little hooks, which appear like sickles, or reaping-hooks,
and have their points opposed to each other. By means of these the insect
suspends itself to the top of he hive, or in any other position it may desire.

To the superior portion of the thorax are attached four wings; consisting
of two pair, of unequal size. ‘These wings are hooked together, in order

BEES. 419

that they may act simultaneously, and not only serve to convey the insects
from place to place, through the air, but, by the humming, buzzing noise
their motion produces, to give notice of their departure from, and return
to, the hive, as well as possibly to animate their fellows in their mutual
labors.

Interiorly the thorax contains the cesophagus, or gullet, which traverses
its extent on its way into the abdomen, where it dilates into, first, the honey-
bag, which is furnished with two pouches posteriorly, and a muscular appa-
ratus, by which it is enabled to give forth its saccharine contents; and,
secondly, into the true stomach, in which digestion goes on, for the nour-
ishment of the insect, and the secretion of wax. Next to the stomach is
situated the sting; this consists of two darts ina sheath. The whole appa-

ratus enters the wound, and the two small darts then enter still further ;
these are barbed, and, on the insect withdrawing them, aid in widening the
puncture, and thus afford greater room for the introduction of the poison.
At the base of the sting the bag containing the poison is placed.

The bee respires by means of spzracles, or breathing-holes, situated in the
thorax, beneath and behind the wings. Through these air is admitted into
the thorax, for the purpose of oxygenating the circulating system, — a fact
which proves the necessity for duly ventilating the hives or bee-boxes.

II. POSITION OF THE APIARY.

The details of the domestic operations of the bee in the cells, — a figure
of which is seen in Fig. 245, — we do not intend to present in this place, but
proceed to speak of those matters more particularly pertaining to the plan
of management pursued by the bee-keeper or farmer.

Aspect.—'The most favorable aspect for the hives or boxes is south-
westerly, which, however, may advantageously be modified or varied
according to the season. In spring, for instance, the aspect would be more
improved by inclining more to the west; in autumn, the reverse. The
reason for this is, that the morning sun is prejudicial to the interests of the
hive, — the bees receiving the light and going forth too early, —a thing
objectionable on two accounts; first, that, especially in early spring, the
dawn is too cold, and will occasion the death of numbers, if they are induced

420 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

to venture forth; and, secondly, because the bees, if they commence opera-
tions so early, become wearied before they have performed a good day’s
work, and the afternoon is a more advantageous period for their labors.

Fig. 245.

gyi

de Viet is

ee 5

Location. — The place for fixing the stand should be a dry soil, — and a
sandy one is better. It should slope towards the front, in order to carry
off the surface water produced by occasional rains, and should not, on any
account, be exposed to the droppings from the eaves of houses, or even
hedges. Shelter is essential, especially behind and on the east of the
hives, —a house or high wall is the best; it is also recommended that the
stand be placed in a sort of small, open shed, well painted on the outside, to
protect it from the weather ; a few shrubs about the stand are also good as
additional shelter. Some recommend high trees for the purpose of keeping
the air calm, lest the bees should be blown down, when returning home.
igh trees are not advisable. Bees are seldom blown to the ground by mere
wind, but even when they are, they can, in a great majority of cases,
recover themselves ; whereas, if biown amongst trees, they will be sure to
be whipped so violently by the branches, that they are absolutely hurled to
the ground with such force as to render their recovery hopeless. The bees
also fly ow, on their return, when they arrive at the immediate neighborhood
of their stand, and, consequently, high trees would be not only useless, but
inconvenient. Whatever trees, therefore, are planted in the immediate
vicinity of the hive, should be of low size, with bushy heads, in order that
the swarms which settle on them may be more easily hived.

Avoid a site near mills or other noisy places, or the neighborhood of
offensive odor, as factories and the like ; and if, as occasionally may happen

BEES. 421

the stand be placed against the garden wall, behind which is the farm-
yard, let not a dung-hill be built against the opposite side, as it may cause
a desertion of the boxes. Do not place the stand where there are rat or
mouse holes.

Water is essential to the well-being of bees; it must, however, be pre-
sented to them judiciously, or it will prove a greater evil than a good. If
there is a shallow, rippling brook through the garden, so much the better ;
if not, place near the stand small, shallow pans of water, and put some
pebbles in them. ‘This water should be changed daily. It is objectionable
to have a pond or canal in the neighborhood ; thousands of bees will be lost
every season through such a means, as they will be constantly blown into
them when returning heavily laden to the hive, especially in the evening,
when wearied, after the toil of an industriously-spent day. The pebbles in
the troughs are for the bees to rest on while drinking.

It is well if the garden is abundantly planted with such shrubs and
flowers as afford honey, in order to prevent, as much as possible, the neces-
sity of the bees constantly traveling to an inconvenient distance in search
of food It is well also to so contrive as to have a succession of such food,
adapted to the season, —a matter comparatively easily managed, and of some
consequence to the well-being of the bees. Among these plants may be
enumerated broom, furz or gorse, thyme, especially lemon-thyme, clover,
crocus, heaths, fruit-trees, mustard, mignonette, sage, single roses, rad-
ishes, primroses, parsley, peas, parsnips, marigolds, violets, lilies, laurus-
tin, daffodils, celery, cauliflowers, asparagus, sunflowers, wall-flowers,
borage, winter vetches, buckwheat.

Hives should on no account be so placed as to be exposed to the noonday
sun; this will injure the honey and melt it, and will raise the temperature
of the hive so as to produce unwished-for swarming, besides otherwise
annoying and injuring the bees. A few shrubs, therefore, should be so
placed as to cast their shadow across the stand during the heat of day. Let
the shrubs be of such a description as the bees are fond of, and they may
also be disposed so as to give the apiary a pleasing and picturesque
appearance.

Bee-houses are only fit for keeping the bee-boxes in during winter ;— one,
two, or three sets of collateral boxes, are as many as any moderate bee-
keeper will desire, or be able conveniently to attend, and these can be kept
each in a little shed by itself. Bee-hives should never be placed close to
each other, as they must necessarily be in the bee-houses recommended by
some, for bees are naturally very irritable and pugnacious insects, and if
two colonies be kept too near each other, battles will ensue, and the weaker
hive be injured or destroyed.

429, FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Ill. HIVES AND BOXES.

Reyuisites. — The old straw, conical-shaped hive, is too well known ta
need description, and, perhaps, too unprofitable to be worthy of it. The chief
objects to be effected by the use of a suitable receptacle for bees are, first, the
power of depriving them of their honey at pleasure, and without injury to
them ; secondly, the obtaining of it in its pure and uncontaminated form ;
thirdly, the means of enlarging their accommodation when necessary, and
the consequent prevention df swarming.

Different Kinds of Hives and Boxes. — Among other hives of considerable
merit, that called the Nutt hive is worthy of being noticed and explained,
and ihe opinions of Mr. Nutt, the inventor, are of sufficient value to be
presented in this place. According to Mr. Nutt, bee-boxes should be from
eleven to twelve inches square inside, and nine or ten inches deep in the
clear. ‘The best wood for them is by some said to be red cedar, — the
chief grounds of preference of which wood are, its keeping away moths,
and its being a bad conductor of heat. But of whatever kind of wood bee-
boxes are made, it should be well seasoned, perfectly sound, and free from
what carpenters term shakes. Good, sound red deal answers the purpose
very well. The sides of the boxes, particularly the front, should be, at the
least, an inch and a half thick ; for the ends, top, and back part, good deal,
one inch thick, is sufficiently substantial; the ends that form the interior
divisions and openings must be of half-inch stuff, well-dressed off, so that
when the boxes and the dividing tins are closed, — that is, when they are
all placed together, — the two adjoining ends should not exceed five eighths
of an inch in thickness. ‘These communication ends — the bars of which
should be exactly parallel with each other — form a communication or
division, as the case may require, which is very important to the bee, and
by which the said boxes can be immediately divided, without injuring any
part of the combs, or deluging the bees with the liquid honey, which so
frequently annoys them, in extracting their sweets from the piled or
storified boxes. The receptacles or frame-work for the ventilators, which
appear upon each side of the end boxes, —the one with the cover off,
the other with it on, — must be four inches square, with a perforated
flat tin, of nearly the same size; and in the middle of that tin must bea
round hole, to correspond with the hole through the top of the box, in the
centre of the frame-work just mentioned, an inch in diameter, to admit the
perforated cylinder tin ventilator, nine inches long. This flat tin must
have a smooth piece of wood, well made, to fit it closely, and to cover the
frame-work, so as to carry off the wet; then placing this cover over the
square perforated tin, the box will be secure from the action of wind and

BEES. 493

‘rain. The perforated cylinder serves both for a ventilator and also fora
secure and convenient receptacle for a thermometer, at any time when it is
necessary to ascertain the temperature of the box into which the cylinder is
inserted. Within this frame-work,— and so that the perforated flat tin,
already described, may completely cover them,— at each corner, make a
hole with a three-eighths’centre-bit, through the top of the box. These four
small holes materially assist the ventilation, and are, in fact, an essential
part of it.

We next come to the long floor, on which the three square bee-boxes which
constitute a set stand collaterally. This floor is the strong top of a long,
shallow box, made for the express purpose of supporting the three bee-boxes,
and must, of course, be superficially of such dimensions as those boxes, when
placed collaterally, require ; or, if the bee-boxes project the eighth part of an
inch over the ends and back of this floor-box, so much the better ; because, in
that case, the rain or wet that may at any time fall upon them will drain off
completely. For ornament, as much as for use, this floor is made to project
about two inches in front; but this projection must be sloped, or made an
inclined plane, so as to carry off the wet from the front of the boxes. To
the centre of this projecting front, and on a plane with the edge of the part
cut away for the entrance of the bees into the pavilion, is attached the
alighting board, which consists of a piece of planed board, six inches by
three, having the two outward corners rounded off a little. The passage
from this alighting board into the pavilion (not seen in the plate, it being in
the centre of the side not shown) is cut, not out of the edge of the box, but
out of the floor-board, and should be not less than four inches in Jength and
about half an inch in depth, or so as to make a clear half-inch way under the
edge of the box for the bee passage. This is preferable to a cut in the edge
of the box, because, being upon an inclined plane, if at any time the wet
should be driven into the pavilion by a stormy wind, it would soon drain
out, and the floor become dry ; whereas, if the entrance-passage be cut out
of the box, the rain, that may and at times will be drifted in, will be kept in,
and the floor be wet for days, and perhaps for weeks, and be very detrimental
to the bees. In depth, the floor-box, measured from outside to outside,
should be four inches, so that if made of three-fourths’-inch deal, there may
be left for the depth of the box part two inches and a half. Internally it is
divided into three equal compartments, being one for each bee-box. Admis-
sion to these compartments, or under-boxes, is by the drawer, or drawer-
fronts, or blocks, which will be described presently.

The bottom, or open edge, of each of the boxes, should be well planed, and
made so even and square that they will sit closely and firmly upon the afore-
said floor, and be as air-tight as a good workman can make them. In the

494 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

floor-board are made three openings, one near the back of each box. These
openings are of semilunar shape (though any other shape would do as well),
the straight side of which should not exceed three inches in length, and will
be most convenient if made parallel with the back edge of the box, and about
an inch from it. They are covered by perforated or by close tin slides, as
the circumstances of the apiary may require. The drawer, the front of which
appears under the middle box, is of great importance, because it affords one
of the greatest accommodations to the bees in the boxes. In this drawer is
placed, if necessity require it, a tin made to fit it; and in that tin another thin
frame, covered with book-muslin, or other fine strainer, which floats on the
liquid deposited for the sustenance of the bees. Here, then, is a feeder,
containing the prepared sweet, in the immediate vicinity of the mother hive,
and without admitting the cold or the robbers to annoy the bees. When the
drawer thus prepared with bee-food is closed, the tin placed over the semi-
lunar aperture must be drawn, which will open to the bees a way to their
food in the drawer beneath. ‘The heat of the hive follows the bees into the
feeding department, which soon becomes the temperature of their native
domicile. ‘The box-fronts on each side of the feeding-drawer are formed of
a bit of tale suspended over a hole on the outside, thus permitting egress,
but precluding ingress. By means of this contrivance, the number of bees
may be increased without alarming or annoying them, and they can likewise
escape when being deprived of one or other of the collateral boxes. This
contrivance further precludes the intrusion of insect enemies.

The centre is perforated on the top, and over the hole a bell-glass is placed,
which, when the hive is filled, the bees fill with honey which is of the
purest description. Wooden fittings or covers are provided for the protec-
tion of these glasses.

The bees, being placed in the centre box, or pavilion, soon commence
cperations, and speedily fill it with honey. When full, which may be ascer-
tained by looking through a window fixed in the back of the box, the tin
slide which separates it from the bell-glass must be drawn; this is best done
on a warm day, and the comb should previously be cut through with a thin
wire. Before taking off the glass, the operator should pause for a few
minutes, to observe whether there be any unusual stir among the imprisoned
bees; for if they do not appear alarmed, the queen is among them, and
in that case the slide must be withdrawn, and the operation postponed to
another day.

In taking away the glass, envelop it in a silk handkerchief, and remove it
about ten yards from the boxes; then place it a little on one side, so as to
permit the imprisoned bees to escape, which they will do in a few minutes.
When occasion requires, the bees are to be similarly admitted into the side

BEES. 425

boxes, by drawing the slides ; but in removing one of these boxes some pre-
eautions require to be used. For instance, open the ventilator the night
previous ; this will, by lowering the temperature of the hive, and admitting
a current of air, induce the bees to leave the box thus treated, and to congre-
gate in the pavilion. ‘Then put down the slide p, and let the bees remain
for ten minutes or so in darkness. If the queen be not in the box to be
taken, any bees that may remain in it will be restless and in confusion. If
she should be there, the commotion will be in the centre box. If the queen
should be in the box intended to be taken, draw up the slide again, and she
will soon leave it. Having emptied the full box, return it to its place. Ac-
cording tg this system, fumigation is unnecessary, —a child, even, may manage
the boxes with ease and safety. The centre box, called, on account of its
being the breeding place. the pavilion of nature, is never to be meddled with.

Any person of common ingenuity can form for himself a set of collateral
boxes, by taking as a stand a piece of strong wood — deal, obtained from an
old door, or other waste timber ; let it be about four feet long and about two
feet wide, as thick as can be procured; place it on four legs, and let the
edge project over the legs, in order to prevent the incursion of insects ; plane
the upper surface smooth. Make three boxes, each about ten inches square,
with, of course, no bottom, and have the edges of the bottomless portion
planed smooth, so as to lie as close as possible to the board. Cut away a
portion of the bottom of one side of each box, and in that designed for the
centre box do so on two opposite sides ; — these are for communication. Get
two sheets of tin, or thin wood, —a piece of a broken tea-chest will do ad-
mirably, — and place one between each of the collateral boxes and the centre
one, so as to cut off communication between them, until it is desired to open
it, when, of course, one of them is withdrawn, and, at the same time, the
side box, thus opened, will be pushed close to the central one. J.et the
stand-board be on an inclined plane, sloping towards the front, so as to throw
off wet, and let the said board project a couple of inches, to serve the bees
as a place on which to alight. Make a small hole, about half an inch, or
rather less, in diameter, in front of this centre box, partly in the box and
partly in the board, for the ingress and egress of its inhabitants. Paint the
boxes externally, but do so a considerable time before they are required for
use, and encompass them with the best sort of rough shed that can be con-
veniently put up; bore a hole, with a centre-bit, in the top of each box, and
place a glass vessel over it. When it is necessary to feed the bees, it can
be done by attaching a feeder to the entrance door, and the holes for the bell-
glasses will afford ample means of ventilating. In case they should not,
however, have a hole at the back of each box, stopped with a cork, which

¢an be withdrawn for the admission of air when necessary. ‘Take care that
36 *

4296 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the cork be not pushed entirely through the wood of the box, or it will be so
cemented by propolis that it cannot, perhaps, be drawn out without injury
or disturbance to the combs.

Another mode of forming bee-boxes is as follows: Let them be of as guod
quality as possible, so as to effectually preserve their contents from either
extreme heat or cold, dampness, or any sudden changes of temperature
The size of the centre box should be about ten and one half inches cube,
inside measure ; and it would be of advantage to have six bars fixed across
the top of it, from front to back, which should be one and one-eighth inches in
width, half an inch in thickness, and half an inch apart—the ends of each
of which should be neatly rabbeted into the front and back of the box. Over
the bars shouid be laid a piece of thin gauze, and upon it the top or cover-
ing-board of the box, which may have a circular hole in the middle of it,
securely stopped by a good cork-bung, te be removed for the purpose of
placing a small bell-glass over the hole, as occasions require. The side
boxes may be made and used of different sizes, if desired, and to contain from
350 to 1100 cubic inches each. If the smaller sizes are adopted, the entrance
to them must be along the hollow part of the bottom-board ; but it would be
considered more complete to have the side boxes of the same width and
depth as the centre one, ard to have them well fitted and secured together
during the honey-gathering season. ‘The entrance from the centre to the
side boxes may then extend along the under edges of each of them from
front to back, and about three-eighths to one-half an inch in depth; there
should also be a perpendicular one, three inches long and half an inch wide,
up the centre of the end of each of the boxes, the upper part of which should
reach to within three inches of the top of the box inside.

The use of bars to the top of boxes is frequently of much service to the
apiarian, as he can thereby occasionally remove a few of the old combs
from the box, and can, at any time, have an opportunity of examining the
state of the interior of the boxes. Before using a new box with bars, as
above, a piece of pure and clean brood-comb should be neatly fixed to each,
on every alternate bar, which may be readily accomplished by the assistance
of a long and smooth piece of heated iron —the comb, being rubbed for a
few seconds on the iron, should immediately be applied to the bar, and will
then, in a short time, firmly adhere to it.

The use of hives of straw is by many persons still continued and approved ;
and there is no doubt that, when properly made and judiciously managed,
the returns from them will often equal, or surpass, those from some of the
more fancy-shaped and eostly wooden boxes.

The size of the straw hive should be from sixteen to seventeen inches in
diameter, and twelve to thirteen inches in height; and they should have a

BEES. 427

narrow, flat, and thick top of wood, with a circular hole and cork-bung in
the centre of it, similar to that for wooden boxes. The outer box, in which
the stock-hive and side boxes are enclosed, having been made wider than
the interior hives or boxes, should have a partition from front to back, on
each side of the stock-hive, and the interstices round the centre hive filled
up with dry sawdust, powdered charcoal, or other suitable materials, which
will be of service in preserving the temperature of the hive in a congenial
and uniform state. The communication from the straw stock-hive to the
side boxes should be along the hollow centre of the bottom-board; three or
more circular holes should also be made in the bottom-board on each side,
in such manner that each of them may be covered with a bell-glass, or that
one of the larger side hives or boxes may be placed over them, as may suit
the wishes or convenience of the apiarian. When glasses are used, they
should be well covered with some soft woollen materials, and a hive or box
should then be placed over them, to effectually exclude the light, and pre-
serve them from accidents of any kind, and sudden changes of temperature.
It is advisable to have the outer box well made, with a neat and substantial
roof to carry off the wet, &c., and it should be made of such breadth as to
leave a space of one half inch on each side of the stock-hive.

A well-informed writer observes, that. if the bees are kept in a straw
hive, it should be of a large size, and well made, and should be stocked
with a strong swarm at the usual period of the year. It should be then
placed on the centre of a stout bottom-board, made long enough to hold a
small hive or box on each side of it, and having hollow communications
from the centre hive to the side ones, which can be opened or closed at
pleasure. When the bees require room in the spring or summer months,
the entrance from the centre to one of the side hives must be opened, and
after they have fairly taken possession of it, it must be properly ventilated
by a hole previously formed on the top, and covered with a piece of perfo-
rated zinc, keeping the temperature between 65° and 75°. The three hives
should have a well-made wooden covering over them, with a span-shaped
roof to carry off the wet, &c., and an opening at the back for the purpose
of examining the progress of the bees; the outer box should be well
painted, and water-proof, and will greatly assist in regulating the tempera-
ture of the hives, and in protecting them from extreme cold, dampness, or
sunshine.

It matters not much of what wood the boxes are made, provided it is
sound, thoroughly seasoned, and well put together. Different opinions are
entertained as to the size of bee-boxes; but much depends on the number
of bees they are to contain, and on the honey locality ; there must also be a
reference to the proposed mode of working them, for, where no swarming

498 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

is permitted, a larger hive may be advantageously used. A good size is
twelve inches square, and nine inches deep within, the thickness throughout
being not less than an inch. The top of the box ought to project on all
sides nearly three quarters of an inch, for better protection and appearance,
and as affording convenience for lifting. On the top a two-inch hole should
be cut in the centre, for placing a bell-glass, and for the purpose of feeding ;
and another hole, to receive a ventilator, may be made near the back win-
dow, that position being better for inspection, and Jess in the way of the
bees, than the centre of the hive, which is, or ought to be, the seat of
breeding, and should not be disturbed. A window may be placed at the
back and front, five inches high and six or seven inches wide. The best
and neatest way of securing the windows is by a sliding shutter of zine.
This passes into a rabbet to receive it, cut, on the remaining three sides, at
the back of the lower edge of the moulding. To prevent any wet from
lodging at the bottom moulding, an opening or two may be easily cut
through, on the under side, to allow its escape. Place the hive under some
cover or shed, as a protection from wet and heat.

The ‘* Leaf Hive,’’? invented by Huber, consists of eight frames, each
eighteen inches high and ten inches wide inside, having the uprights and
top cross-pieces one and a half inches broad, and one thick, so that the eight
frames, when placed close together, constitute a hive eighteen inches high,
twelve inches between end and end, and ten inches between back and front,
all inside measure. The frames are held together by a flat sliding-bar on
each side, secured by wedges and pins. ‘To the first and eighth of these
frames is attached a frame with glass, and covered with a shutter. The
body of the hive is protected by a sloping roof, and the entrance is made
through the thickness of the floor-board. Some dislike the sliding-bars,
with their pins and wedges, because, in drawing them out, all the frames
are liable to open, and the observer is exposed to some hazard of annoyance
from the bees issuing out at every joint; as a substitute for them, place
hinges on one side, and a hook-and-eye on each frame on the other, and
thus any particular leaf may be opened without meddling with the rest In
taking honey from this hivé, the bee-master has the whole interior com-
pletely under his eye, and at his disposal ; and can choose what combs best
suit his purpose, both as to quantity and quality, taking care, however, to
do so only at such periods as will leave the bees time to replenish the
vacancy before the termination of the honey season. It is also well adapted
for artificial swarming. By separating the hive into halves, the honey,
brood-combs, and bees, will, generally speaking, be equally divided; and
by supplying each half with four empty frames, there will be two hives,
one half empty, equal in number of bees, of brood, and even of stores. One

BEES. 499

of the new hives will possess the queen, and, if the operation has been
performed at the proper time, — that is to say, a week or ten days before the
period of natural swarming, — the probability is, there will be a royal brood
coming forward in the other; at all events, there will be plenty of eggs and
larve of the proper age for forming an artificial queen.

With regard to the use of sticks or cross-pieces, some object to them, as
only an annoyance to the bees; and there is little fear of the combs falling,
except in very deep hives, — at any rate, it may be prevented by contracting
the lower part a little. The best way of doing this is by working a
wooden hoop inside the bottom band of the hive; it should be perforated
through its whole course, and the perforations made in an oblique direction,
so distant from each other as to cause all the stitches of the hive to range
in an uniform manner. The hoop gives greater stability to the hive, pre-
serves the lower edge from decay, and affords facility in moving it. A
circular piece of wood (turned with a groove at the edge, to retain it in its
place) should be worked into the crown, having through it an inch-and-a-
half hole. With a little ingenuity, the bees may be fed through this open-
ing,— a better method than the ordinary one, at the bottom of a hive. A
piece of wood or tin will commonly cover the hole ; but at times, especially
in winter, it may be used for the purpose of ventilation, and allowing the
impure air of the hive to escape. In this case, a bit of perforated zinc or
tin should be placed over it, which, when stopped up by the bees, can be
replaced by a clean one. An earthen pan is a common cover to a straw
hive ; and this may be slightly raised by wedges on the four sides, to per-
mit a small space underneath. Of whatever material the outer covering
consists, it must project so far on all sides as to protect the hive from the
least moisture. This cannot be too much guarded against ; and whether
of wood or straw, all hives ought to be well painted at the beginning, and
kept so.

To have a simple and cheap hive, get a common straw hive, of somewhat
larger dimensions than common, and cut it across (about one third of its
length) from the upper or conical end; fit to this end a round piece of wood
about an inch in thickness, having in its centre a hole about an inch and a
nalf in diameter, fitted with a cork or bung. Take another hive of ordinary
dimensions, and place it over this. This is called capping. When, during
the proper season, the bees have filled the lower part of the hive, and show
symptoms of requiring more room, you have only to draw out the cork, and
place the cap over the board. This acts as a bell-glass, and the honey
which will be collected in it will not be inferior to that procured from the
most costly set of bee-boxes. A,coating of Roman cement on the exterior
surface of these hives will render them almost everlasting.

430 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Glass hives are not to be recommended. Bees love darkness, and hate
light or observation. In a state of nature they seek some hollow, vacant
spot beneath a bank or rock, the cleft of a tree, or some similarly dark and
secluded place.

Huish is of the opinion that straw is the best material for making hives,
because it is clean, wholesome, dry, impervious to the effects of the
weather; and being a warm advocate for the deprivation of a hive, in pref-
erence to the massacre of the bees, the particular shape of the hive became
a matter of the first consideration, and secondly, so to construct it that the
use of the sticks could be entirely abolished. In some parts of Greece, the
hives resemble exactly a large flower-pot, and he considered that that shape
offered to him every advantage which he was desirous of obtaining. The
combs, being begun at the top, would necessarily be larger than at the
bottom, and thus, acting on the principles of the wedge, they would be
prevented from falling down, and the extraction of them from the top would,
in comparison from the bottom, be a matter of great facility. In order,
however, to effect the extraction of the combs from the top, it was evident
‘hat that advantage could not be gained were the top of the hive to be of
one piece, for as such it could not be lifted without moving the whole mass
of the combs, which, in the first place, would be next to an impossibility,
and, in the second, would tend to the utter ruin of the hive. Having, there-
fore, constructed a hive of the shape of a flower-pot, making the diameter
of the base not much smaller than that of the top, he placed a projecting
band at the top, on which he placed seven bars, according to the annexed
figure. These bars are fastened to the band of straw by small wooden
pegs, which are easily drawn out when a honey-comb is to be extracted.

Fig. 246.

With the knowledge that bees will not construct their combs on an insecure
foundation, he placed a piece of network over the bars, of which the meshes
are of a middling size, by which, in a degree, the bees were forced to attach
their combs to the bars, and thereby rendering their extraction more easy,
Over the network he placed a board of five divisions, attached to each other

BEES. 431

by hinges, so that any part of the interior of the hive could be examined
without exposing the whole. The network was evidently an annoyance ta
the bees, for in almost every instance the greater portion of it was nibbled
away. In the lapping-board nine holes were made, over which plates of
perforated tin were put, in order that the perspiration might escape, which
prevents the combs assuming that black appearance which is in general so
great an eyesore. According to this construction, the deprivation of the
hive is very easily effected, and may be accomplished by the most timid
person. The hive being covered with a top, according to the annexed cut,
it is taken off, and one of the side flaps being lifted up, the position of the

comb immediately exhibits itself. If it has not been constructed exactly
parallel with the bar, the opposite side may be examined, and that comb
selected for extraction which presents the greatest facility. It is, however,
necessary that the operator should have in readiness a pair of bellows, to
the orifice of which is attached a small tin box, with the lid and bottom well
perforated, into which some old rags or dried leaves, in an ignited state,
must be placed; and thus, being provided with the object most dreaded by
the bees, — namely, smoke, — as soon as the flap is opened, and the bees
present themselves, they can be driven away; and should they show any
disposition to return, the repetition of the smoke will — in them all fature
inclination to annoy the operator.

The make of Mr. Huish’s hive was originally round. It was, however,
soon discovered that that shape carried with it the disadvantage of having
the side combs very small; and, therefore, after much trouble, he succeeded
in bringing it nearly to the square, by which the side combs are nearly as
large as those in the middle. Fig. 248 represents the hive.

Of late years, many new plans for bee-hives have been presented to the
public, some of which are great improvements on the old modes of construc-
tion and management. Among these may be named Beard’s, Colton’s,
Cutting’s, Weeks’, and Miner’s; a still more valuable invention is that
one patented by Arza Gilmore, Esq., which is commended by many of

our most intelligent and skillful apiarists, as one combining, in an emi-

432 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

pent degree, all the requisites of a perfect hive, and its introduction is
becoming more general than that of any other article now in the market.

Fig. 248,

Ss:
SS:
SSS

The following is a perspective view of a bee-house, or apiary, on Mr. Gil-
more’s plan.
Fig. 249.

RKTT MINI

ANA ANN

AMR A
ANU
A WW
ih i AK

; WAU AN
Le RU os :

) i WANN ANN
i i pes Sh RN ANY A
Mi ee AN ONG AA AWWW

MUM
ve ce 771)\) i! i AAO LIAN
| + |) ASS ANNAN SA AIK NAA IVAN ND ATION

al a A

The above shows the front, with the openings for the bees —a door at the
end, leading into the apartment back of the hives, where you can go, and
examine the boxes, and inspect operations, unmolested. These houses may

BEES. 433

be made plain or ornamental, according to the taste or desires of the propri-
etors, and of any required size.

In regard to the Gilmore plan, the first thing necessary will be to pre-
pare a house or room, say eight or ten feet wide, and of any length you
wish. In this, the hives and boxes are to be arranged as follows : —

The hives are made of the usual size, but in three parts, as represented
by aaa. They are seven and a half inches high, ten wide, and fifteen long.

Fig. 250.

On the tops of all of them are slats or gratings made of wood, about an inch

in width, and about a quarter of an inch apart. ‘They should be apart far

enough to let the bees pass through easily, but net so far apart as to allow

them to build comb that would project through the grating, andconnect with

comb helow. ‘The object is to be able to remove parts of the comb in the
37 2c

434 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

hive when it gets old, and by sliding in a new section of hive, give them a
chance to renew it. In this way, all the comb may be renewed in each hive,
from time to time. ‘There is much advantage in this, for the bees are not
only more healthy and active with new, freshly-made comb, but, in process
of time, the cells, where the larva are raised, become narrow and filled up
with bread, and the exvuvia of the growing young ; hence, bees bred in such
places are not so large and strong. ‘This arrangement of hives enables the
bee-breeder to remove the old, and give the bees a chance to manufacture
new. ‘These sections of the hive are held together by bits or small cleats
of wood, represented by c c c, which are fitted into slots cut in the edge of
each section, and held in their places by small wood screws. On the top
of the hive, as at e, is an orifice or hole, which may be closed by a slide,
and also a similar one on the sides, at d. ‘These are for the purpose of
allowing the bees to pass from hive to hive, as they are placed in contact
with each other, and should be four or five inches square. ‘They can thus
pass through the opening e, in the top, into the hive above, or into the hives
on either side, through the opening d, in the sides,

Fig. 251.

These sections, when put together, represent the front of the hive. It
will be perceived that holes, or notches, are cut on each side of the cleats
ccc, to allow the bees to pass and repass into and out of the hives, as is
usual in common hives. Any number of hives are placed in contact with
each other, side by side, and on the top of each other ; and there is a com-
munication throughout the whole, as above named, through the openings ¢

and d. -

BEES. 435

The next cut represents the back-side of the hive, where are seen the
cleats cc c, and the openings e and d. In addition to these are holes f f,
eight in number, bored with an inch or an inch-and-a-half bit. They are
made to allow the bees to pass from the main hives into the boxes, which

Fig. 252.

are placed in contact with them, having an opening of the same size, to
match. These boxes are made of thin, light wood, having a pane of glass
in front, through which it may be seen whether they are filled with honey
or not, before taking them away. ‘They are seven and a half inches long,
and four and three-fourths’ inches high. The cut g represents the glass

Fig. 253.

front ; f f showing the opening on the back-side, corresponding with the
hole f, in the main hive. These boxes are kept in their places by means

436 FARMER’S HAND-BOCK.

of a rack, similar to the rack or case in which small drawers are placed
This is shown in the succeeding cut, and is extensive enough to cover the
whole of broadside of the hives—=s s s s representing slides of wood, tin, or
zinc, by which the communication between the hives may be cut off when
desired.

These are the movable parts of the apiary. We will now proceed to
arrange them in the house or room in which they are to stand. In order to

Fig. 254.

illustrate this arrangement, the interior of the house is seen with the back —
and ends removed, thus exposing the fixtures within. A A A A is the floor
of the house ; B B B B is the front side. In order to let the bees pass out
and in, small openings or doors are made, either in the form of a long open-
ing, as in the shaded part represented by cin the upper part, or in the
square shaded parts, e eee, below. Long openings are preferable. All
these openings are furnished with shutters or slides, by which they may be

437

BEES.

The best arrangement for this is to have a long

eumpletely closed, at will.

opening with a groove at the top and bottom of it, so as te return the slides

255.

Fig.

—— -______ ___

37*

438 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

when put in. By these, any part of the opening can be shut, and openings
left just where you wish, which is often essential in directing the bees to

Fig. 256.

= Nw Awa
Se iy AAAS

BEES. 439

such part of the hives as you wish. ‘Two wide shelves, cc cc, are then
placed in the house, the fronts resting against the side of the house, and the
ends attached to posts or scantlings, which hold them firmly in their place.
Below the lower shelf, at D, is a closet sufficiently large to hold a common
bee-hive. This has a door, to shut tight and keep it dark, and a small
opening in the front. The use will be explained below. The dotted lines
on the shelves represent the spaces covered by the hives, when in place ;
0 0 o represent slots or openings through the shelf, corresponding with the
openings in the top of the lower tier of hives, allowing the bees to pass
through into the upper tier.

We will now place the hives, and the rack or case to hold the boxes, in
their places, which will be represented in the last architectural figure, where
AAA A show the floor of the house, B B B B the front side, h h h the tops
of the upper tier of hives, 0 o o the ends of the slide regulating the passage
from hive to hive. After they are all placed, the boxes are darkened by being
covered with a curtain or shutter. These tiers of hives are represented as
not extending the whole length of the house, but stopping two or three feet
short of the right-hand end. At this end, the hives are perforated with
holes, and a rack or case put up, which contains glass tumblers, lying on
their sides, with their mouths applied to the holes in the hives.. ‘The bees
enter these, and fill them with honey; a partition is put up at the end of
the shelves to keep the bees from entering the other part of the house, and
windows, w w, placed there, so that a spectator can stand and look into the
gallery in front of the hive, and see the bees pass and repass into and out
of the house. The hives are placed back a foot, or a foot and a half, from
the side of the house, which leaves free space for the bees, and enables them
to attack moths, or other intruders. We will suppose that you have the
hives and fixtures all arranged, and one swarm of bees at work in them;

you may then add as many swarms as you can procure, in the following
manner: You place the hive containing the swarm that you wish to ald to

440 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the swarms in the apiary, into the closet D, at the bottom of the house —
shutting the door, making all dark except the small opening in front. Ina
short time, the bees will leave the imprisoned hive, and unite with the
swarm in the house, and work quietly and peaceably with them. When
boxes are taken from the cases, they will contain a few bees. Place them
in the dark closet D, and they will soon leave, and unite with the other
bees in their work.

The preceding eut represents a portion of the comb, or hexagonal cells
of the bee, and also a cell for the production of the queen-bee, cut open, to
show the difference of its form and size.

IV. OBTAINING STOCK.

Spring Stock. — A stock of bees may be procured either in the spring or
autumn. ‘The former period is, perhaps, to be preferred, because it is the
fitting time for the removal of stocks from the old-fashioned, awkward hives.
to the more improved modern receptacles ; but it is more difficult to ascer-
tain the exact condition of the stock which may be purchased in spring than
mm autumn. If, during the months of May or June, a purchase is to be
made, the garden, or other locality, in which the hive intended to be pur-
chased stands, should be visited about mid-day ; stand opposite to it, and
observe attentively the actions of its inhabitants. If they crowd busily in
and out of the hive, giving evidence of their industry by the laden appear-
ance of their legs, and altogether showing a busy earnestness in their toils,
the hive may safely be bought, and if obtained before swarming has taken
place, so much the better.

Autumn Stock. —If the object be to obtain an autumnal hive, it is well
to ascertain, by observing the stand and the ground around the hive, that
the massacre of the drones has taken place. Observe the actions of the bees
—see that they are livelv and industrious: and if, on your too near ap-
proach, one or two bees dash at the face, it may be regarded as a sign of
vigor. Some writers speak of the necessity of purchasing only such stocks
as are in nice new hives. This is necessary to be attended to, but is not so
important if the interior of the hive be filled only with honey-comb, and
with no old, worn-out comb, the accumulation of years. If there is reason
for doubt on the subject, fumigate the hive in the evening; then, turning
up the hive, the character of its contents may readily be ascertained. If
the comb be black, have nothing to do with the stock ; the genuine color
of the comb is white, and, consequently, the lighter it is, the better the
stock.

To Secure Good Hives. — Unless the party can be depended on, it is best
never to send the hive to receive aswarm ; otherwise a second swarm may be

BEES. 44]

furnished instead of a first swarm —a comparatively valueless stock for just
the very thing desired. The first swarm begins the formation of the combs
at the middle of the apex of the hive ; the second does so at the sede.

The person who intends to erect an apiary should purchase a proper
number of hives at the latter end of the year, when they are cheapest. The
hives should be full of combs, and well stored with bees. The purchaser
should examine the combs, in order to know the age of the hives. The
combs of that season are while; those of a former year are of a darkish-yel-
low ; and when the combs are black, the hives should be rejected, because
old hives are most liable to vermin and other accidents. If the number of
hives wanted have not been purchased in the autumn, it will be necessary
to remedy this neglect after the severity of the cold is past in the spring.
At this season, bees which are in good condition will get into the fields
early in the morning, return loaded, enter boldly, and do not come out of
the hive in bad weather, for when they do, this indicates that they are in
great want of provisions. ‘They are on the alert on the least disturbance,
and by the loudness of their humming we judge of their strength. They
preserve their hives free from all filth, and are ready to defend them to the
utmost.

The summer is an improper time for buying bees, because the heat of the
weather softens the wax, rendering the comb liable to break, if they are not
very well secured. The honey, too, being then thinner than at any other
time, is more apt to run out at the cells, which is attended with a double
disadvantage, viz., the loss of the honey, and the daubing of the bees,
whereby many of them may be destroyed. A first and strong swarm may,
indeed, be purchased, but unless it is permitted to stand in the same garden
until the autumn, it should be carried away in the nigAt, after it has been
hived.

Vv. SWARMING.

Time of Swarming. — Bees multiply, during the breeding season, with
astonishing rapidity ; it is, therefore, not to be wondered at that the young
brood should speedily produce crowding in the hive, thus becoming not only
inconvenienced for room, but more than agreeably warm; it is also sup-
posed that the queen becomes alarmed at the number and progress to matu-
rity of the royal larve, which, indeed, she would fain kill, were not she
prevented from doing so by the workers. While swarming is by no means
to be forced, yet, if symptoms of a swarm present themselves early, say in
April or May, it may be permitted to take place, provided the parent stock
be still sufficiently strong in numbers ; otherwise, it is, of course, highly dis-
advantageous to the well-being of the hive, as well as to the emigrants.

Indications of Swarming. — The most certain indications of swarming are,

4492 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the hive appearing full of bees —clusters of them gathering on the outside.
and sometimes hanging from the alighting-board ; they also neglect thet

Fig. 258.

fy
® ib ‘NY Vy
Ry RW
) Cn » We

daily toil, and refrain from going abroad in search of sweets, even though
the weather be very fine. Just before they take flight, the hive is hushed,
the bees are silent, and carefully loading themselves with provender for their
journey. For two or three nights prior to swarming, a peculiar humming
noise may be heard within the hive ; the second swarm is announced by a
different sort of buzzing, being, according to some writers, the result of a
contest as to which of the two queens shall lead off from the hive. The old
queen leads off the first swarm.

To Prevent Swarming. — If a swarm be about to quit the hive, the slight-
est change of weather will prevent their doing so, but nothing so effectually
as a shower of rain; hence, an excellent mode of preventing it, when the
bees cluster on the outside of the hive, is by syringing them with water from
a common metallic syringe. When a swarm leaves the hive, if it do not

BEES. 443

settle and there is fear of its going to too great a distance, throw up
dust. Secure the swarm, at once for bees send scouts to select a new
place.

To Secure a Swarm that has Settled —When the swarm settles, the
bees collect themselves in a heap around the queen, hanging to each
other by means of their feet. When thus suspended from a tree (Fig.
258) hold an empty hive under them, and tap the branch. They
should then be sprinkled with honey and ale, aud confined for about
twelve hours. When a swarm divides and settles separately, it is pro-
bable there are two queens. One of them must be secured. If a second
Swarm comes off, as soon as it is hived, secure the queen, and return
the swarm to the hive ; deprived of its queen, it will usually immedi-
ately return of its own accord. Many persons suppose that the greater
the number of swarms the richer will be the hives in August. The
very reverse of this, however, is the case.

Hlectricity—A famous German apiarist has successfully used electri-
city to enable him to manage bees when swarming. An electric shock
it was found would temporarily stupefy the bees. Both large and small
clusters were found to be completely under the influence of the shock.
Even single insects could be operated on. The moment the bees touched
the operating wires they dropped motionless to the earth. You could
then handle and sort them as you pleased, and they remained stunned
for a time proportionate to the strength of the shock. All, however,
came out of their swoon quite well. To fully test the question, the
operator determined to experiment on a large scale. With this end in
view he placed the ends of two conducting wires in a honey-comb
filled with bees, and turned on the current ; ina few seconds all the
bees succumbed, and it was all of a half hour before their vitality re-
turned. Then they resumed work as though nothing had happened.

Liffects of Swarming.—Mr. Briggs, a distinguished apiarist, remarks
that most persons who keep their bees on the old straw-hive plan, and
suffocating system, appear to anticipate their swarming with much anx-
iety, and think that the greater number of swarms,—firsts, scconds,
thirds, &c.,—that they obtain from their old hives during the summer,
the more remunerative will they prove to their owner at the end of the
season ; whereas the reverse of the above practice is much nearer of
being the best system to follow. June is the principal month for
swarming, in ordinary seasons ; and it is in June and July that the
greatest quantity of honey is stored up by the bees. When the swarm-
ing is assisted and encouraged during June and July, the old stock are
considerably weakencd, and the swarms are employed in building combs
in new hives, collecting pollen, and attending to the young brood, until
the best part of the honey-storing season is over; so that, at the honey

444 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

harvest in autumn, it will frequently require the contents of five or six old
stocks, or late swarms, to produce as much honey as might have been ob-
tained from one colony on the system of management which is recom-
mended. fa

To Avoid Swarming, in the Case of Collateral Boxes. —In collateral boxes,
and in capped hives, swarming may be prevented by affording the bees
additional accommodations, and reducing the temperature ; and for this end,
it is recommended, by most apiarists, that the hive or box should be fur-
nished with a thermometer, as well as a ventilator. Those, however, who do
not possess these accommodations, may manage well enough, by proper
observation and attention to the symptoms which have been detailed. When
these appear in a collateral box-hive, open one of the partitions, and admit
the bees into a new apartment ; if all be full, take off a box, empty and
restore it. In the case of a capped hive, remove the bung, and admit the
bees to the cap ; if full, remove, empty, and restore it. ‘The most favorable
degrees of heat for the prosperity of the brood are from 75° to 90° in the
stock-hive, and from 65° to 75° in the side boxes. The heat, in a prosper-
ous hive, is sometimes upwards of 70° in December, and will, in hot sum-
mer weather, sometimes rise to near 120°, at which time the combs are in
great danger of being damaged, and of falling to the floor of the hive; this
may, however, be prevented, by giving extra room when required, and by
shading the hives from extreme heat, as previously directed. And again,
it should always be borne in mind that all operations with bees should be
performed as carefully and speedily as circumstances wil! permit, so that the
bees will scarcely know that their habitation has been meddled with. After
hiving a new swarm, if unfavorable weather follow their departure, feed
them, otherwise they will be starved ; indeed, it would be well if each new
swarm were always fed for a few days, as this will assist them in gaining
strength in numbers and in store, before the principal part of the honey
season goes over. The weight of a good swarm should be from five to
seven pounds, and all under five pounds in weight should be united to others.
In hiving a swarm, it is well to be protected with a proper bee-dress. Some
persons are particularly unhappy in possessing those qualities which render
them disagreeable to bees. ‘The main objections are, excessive timidity,
and likewise, with some, an unpleasant odor, in some instances the result
of personal negligence, but frequently of peculiarity of constitution. The
remedies are, a bee-dress for the former, and the use of some strong perfume
which the bees like, and which will effectually conceal whatever is offensive
to them.

Some writers on bee management have suggested other modes to prevent
objectionable swarming, besides the collateral boxes and the capped hive.

BEES. 445

Among these plans may be mentioned storifying or piling, and eking. The
latter is speedily disposed of; it consists of adding ekes, or additional bands
of straw, to the bottom of the common hive, according as additional room is
required. The objection is, that, although it may thus answer the purpose
during one season, the next involves as much perplexity as ever.

Adaptedness of t,.e Different Hives. —The objections urged against the
storified hive are, first, that it occasions the bees greater trouble and labor,
rendering their labor less productive ; second, the absence of provision for
dividing the ordinary cells from the more peculiar and mysterious operations
of the queen, and of course a consequent deterioration of the honey in respect
to purity, besides much inconvenience and waste of time to the poor bees,
—for a laden bee cannot mount up from one box to another, and through a
labyrinth of comb, with anything like comfort and ease; thirdly, in taking
a box of honey, the proprietor cannot be certain of not taking away a
quantity of brood-comb, &c., —though this objection may be classed with that
which rests on the impurity of the honey, with this additional one — that
this also refers to loss of life which the bees, both brood and adult, must
thus sustain; and fourthly, in consequence of these objectionable circum-
stances, which are the inevitable consequences of the piling system, the
profit accruing from such management will be far inferior to that obtainable
by the system already recommended.

It is said that in piled boxes bees are subjected to unnecessary labor,
which is so far a waste of time. From piled boxes not nearly the quantity
of honey and wax is procured that may be procured from collateral boxes ;
nor is that deficient quantity of a quality at all comparable with the other.
In managing piled boxes many bees are destroyed.

VI. THE HONEY HARVEST.

Time and Mode. — Those who possess collateral boxes may begin taking
a box or a bell-glass very early in the season, — indeed, even so early as May
or June; this must be, of course, dependent on the state of affairs, and on
their own discretion. Those who keep their bees in the capped hive may
also get a cap full of honey in or about the middle of June. The real honey
harvest, however, is that which should take place in the beginning or middle
of August. With reference to the collateral hives, no instructions need be
added to those given when describing Mr. Nutt’s boxes.

The old mode of obtaining honey was, as is well known, by suffocating the
inmates of the hive. ‘‘ Fumigation’’ is a word employed by bee-keepers
to express the process in which, by the aid of certain intoxicating smoke,
the insects become temporarily, stupefied ; in which state they are perfectly

harmless, and may be deprived of their honey without any risk or trouble.
38

446 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

They subsequently recover from their stupefaction, and are nothing the
worse for it. The dried fuzz-ball, and the frog-cheese, are much used for
the purpose; but, in their absence, rags steeped in a solution of saltpetre,
or a few tobacco-leaves wrapped in brown paper, will do nearly as well.
If tobacco be used, care is necessary, lest the fumigation be carried to too.
great an extent, so as to cause the death of some or all of the stock. Per-
sons not accustomed to deal with bees should wear an over-all of thin gauze
over the head and breast, and gloves on their hands. With this, anda little
bottle of aqua ammonia, or aqua potasse, to be used in case of accident, they
can go to work with coolness and deliberation.

There shuuld be provided, for the purpose of fumigation, a small tin box,
with 1 tube extending from each of two opposite ends ; one end of this tube
being so fashioned that it can readily be inserted into the hive, and the other so

Fig. 259.

formed that it can readily be attached to the tube of an ordinary bellows.
The box should be so formed that it can be opened at pleasure. In this box
the matter to be employed in fumigation is first placed, having, of course,
been previously ignited ; and the proper end of the tube having been inserted
into the hive at the lower part, ply the bellows gently. The bees begin at
ence to feel the effects of the smoke. At first an unusual humming and
commotion will be heard, but in less than ten minutes all will be still.
The bees will fall upon the board under the hive, and lie quite still, as if
dead. The hive may then be removed, and a fresh hive —the interior well
smeared with honey — may be placed over them, or they may be united to
another stock, which should also be previously fumigated, one queen being
removed. Some persons may conceive it to be a difficult matter to come at
the queen. When fumigation is resorted to, she is, of course, easily dis-
covered ; but even when it is dispensed with, and the practice adopted which
will presently be described, she is not so very difficult to come at; for, on a
hive being turned up and tapped, the queen is among the first, if not, indeed,
the very first, who makes her appearance. The queen usually lodges near
the crown of the hive, and is, when fumigation is resorted to, one of the
last to fall; she will, therefore, in this case, be found amongst the upper-
most bees. In practising fumigation, two persons should act in concert,
each taking a hive and operating upon it, in order that both stocks should

BEES. 447

be simultaneously in a similar condition as to intoxication. The hive must
also be well covered witha cloth, to prevent the escape of the smoke. When
the two stocks have been united in the manner described, it is advisable to
confine the insects to their hive for that night and the following day. Do
not, however, wholly deprive them of air in doing so, or they may be smoth-
ered. On the evening of the following day, about dusk, uncover the hive,
and open the entrance. ‘The bees will probably at first tumultuously issue
forth, but, finding the lateness of the hour, will as hastily return. It is
necessary to be cautious at this time.

The most suitable period of the year for uniting weak with strong stocks
is from the middle of August to the latter part of September. This, how-
ever, is not a proper time to remove stocks from straw hives to boxes, for
the season is too far advanced. When taken from their warm hive, and
removed into a cold box, bees rarely recover from the effects of the fumiga-
tion sufficiently to resume business. May or June is the best time for this
removal, or perhaps still earlier, —say the beginning of April, — before the
eggs of the queen-bees have attained the stage of larve. If the operation
be performed in cold weather, it is recommended that it be done in a room
where the temperature is about 60°. Twelve hours, or thereabouts, suffice
for the recovery of the bees, and they may then be removed with safety to
their ordinary stand.

To prepare the fuzz-balls, put the ball into a piece of stout paper, and
compress it as tightly as you can; tie it up closely in this condition, and put
it in a moderate!y-cool oven, — about as cool as that from which bread has
just been withdrawn ; — let it remain there until jt will serve as tinder.
The quantity of the prepared fungus necessary for the fumigation of a hive
is a piece about the size of a hen’s egg,—less may, in some instances,
answer, but it is better to have too much than too little. Prior to union,
—even where fumigation has been employed, —the sprinkling with ale and
liquid honey should not, on any account, be omitted.

The system which dispenses altogether with fumigation, called tapping
or driving, is spoken of favorably by some writers. It is as follows: —
When daylight has died away, and twilight appears, the bees will all be
quietly reposing, unsuspectingly, in the hive ; — let whoever is in the habit
of tending the bees be the agent in the process ;—no assistance is necessary ;
— let him or her take an old chair from which the bottom is out, —a worn
one is best, as it best fits the reversed hive, — turn up the hive on the chair,
and place over it an empty one, which has been smeared interiorly with
honey, or sugar dissolved in beer; wrap a cloth around the point of junction,
for the first few minutes, and with a stick tap the reversed hive round the
sides, beginning near the bottom, and gradually ascending in your strokes,

448 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

towards the top; let the strokes be not too rough, lest the combs be
loosened.

Ere this operation has proceeded very far, a humming noise will be
heard, and presently the disturbed bees, more than half asleep, will mount
into the upper hive. If the ascent of the bees appears checked, before all
have left the lower hive, remove the cloth,— which, by the way, is no
longer necessary, when once the ascent has commenced, — and raise the
upper half an inch or so above the lower. This will be found to facilitate
the emigration, and will be unattended with danger. The lower hive
being fully deserted, place that containing the bees on the stand. Some
like to close the aperture for a time, but this is useless.

First Harvest. —'The most secure mode of procedure, and the most
approved, is to unite the exiled bees with those of another hive. Remem-
ber always to leave the bees a sufficient store of honey as food. ‘This is
usually done by setting apart what is called a stock-hive, —a hive well
filled with honey, and capable of containing and supporting more bees.
Turn up this stock-hive, and sprinkle its drowsy inmates, or rather drench
them, with sugar or honey, dissolved in beer. Do the same with the
exiles; and once again invert the abode of the latter over the mouth of the
inverted stock-hive. Proceed in other respects as before ; and, by tapping,
drive them down. The two families rapidly recover from their surprise,
and the agreeable employment afforded to all their individual members,
of licking the results of the sprinkling from each other’s bodies, will
soon produce friendliness, and meanwhile the liquid with which you
have saturated them will prevent their distinguishing betwixt stranger
and comrade. Of course, precaution was taken previously to remove
the queen of the swarm to be united to the stock-hive. ‘This is the first
harvest.

Second Harvest. — By adopting the following approved system of manage-
ment, a second harvest may be obtained, before placing the bees in their
winter quarters. This latter operation is termed shifting.

From the middle of August to the end of September is the usual time
when we perceive the food of bees beginning to fail them. This is the
period for removing them to the ‘‘heather,’’ which is then in bloom.
Before moving, ascertain the condition of the hives; for those which are
well stocked with honey should be deprived by the process already detailed,
and this should be done some days prior to removal, for the combs con-
taining the young may have been loosened in the operation, and the
bees should be allowed time to fasten them once again securely in their
places.

Water carriage, when procurable, is the best, as it shakes the hives

BEES. 449

least; but when land carriage must be resorted to, the hives should be car-
ried on poles, slung on men’s shoulders. ‘The journey should be pursued
at night only, and the bees suffered to go forth and feed during the day.
Such is their instinct, that they will readily find their way back ; but they
should not be suffered to go forth until at the distance of upwards of ten or
twelve miles from their original home, otherwise they will be lost in
endeavoring to regain it, — a moderate distance induces them to abandon
the idea, and to become reconciled to their new quarters. If traveling by
canal, the hives should be removed from the boat, and placed on stands, at
some distance from the bank, ere the insects are let out, otherwise they will
be lost in thousands by falling into the water on their return.

Examining and Weighing. — About the middle of September, examine
your hives; at all events, do not, whatever be the aspect of the season,
neglect this necessary operation until October; but if the season appear
likely to turn out to be a severe one, set about it even earlier than the time
named. Understand, however, that the bees cannot be deprived of any
honey sv late as this.

In glass or observatory hives, and such as are formed on the collateral-
box or piled-box principle, there are usually such contrivances as_ will
admit of inspection of the hive and its contents without handling it. In the
ordinary hive, however, we cannot avoid manually ascertaining the weight
and condition of the stock. In order to do so, a previous acquaintance with
the weight of the hive, and of the probable number of bees which it con-
tains, is necessary ; and it would be as well to have the stands so contrived
as to admit of their being raised with the hive for the purpose of weighing,
as, if the latter be forcibly separated from the former, the cement of propolis
gets broken, — the substance which unites the hive to its position on the
stand, — and annoys and troubles the bees.

A hive should contain twenty pounds of honey for its support during
winter ; but it is a mistake to suppose that an increase of number in the
hive, produced by union, will require an increase of food. In fact,
precisely the contrary is the case; and the more abundant the stock
of the bees in autumn, the richer and the better able to work will they be in
spring, — the more forward, therefore, will they’ be in summer, and the
greater will be the profit. The weight of honey, above named, is, of
course, exclusive of both hive and bees. In one pound—sixteen ounces—
there are about five thousand bees; from fifteen to twenty thousand bees
constitute a strong hive, — that is, from four to five pounds in weight. If,
after making these calculations and deductions. the stocks are found under
weight, either supply them withefood, or unite wwo or mure together.

Age will cause hives to weigh heavier than their legitimate contents

38 * 2D

450 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

would call for. This is occasioned by an accumulation of bee-bread, and the
cast sloughs which had formerly served as envelopes to the young. In the
case of old hives, therefore, allow from two to five pounds, according to
age, for these matters. ‘The substances referred to should be occasionally
removed from the hive, as otherwise they will accumulate to such an exent
as to render the hive too small for breeding, and the stock will thus soon
become extinct. Spring is the proper season for removing these substances ;
— the process is very simple, consisting merely in fumigating the hives, and
thus rendering the bees for the time insensible; then, while they are in this
state, turning up the hive and cutting out a portion of the old comb, — only
cut away half ata time. The following spring, perform the same opera-
tion ;—the gap made by the knife the previous year will be found com-
pletely restored, and the remaining portion of old comb may now be
removed. By this system of constantly inducing a renovation of the combs,
the stock may be preserved in a state of perpetual youth.

Duration of Hives. —'The hive, even if made of straw, will last for an
indefinite length of time, if protected externally by a thick coat of white-
wash, or, which is better, Roman cement. Some object entirely to paint
being used for this purpose. ‘The cutting of the combs may also be
resorted to in cases where the hives are infested with moths; under such
circumstances, all the combs that contain the larve of those insects may be
cut away.

Food for Bees. — With regard to food for bees, honey, when it is on
hand and can be spared, is, of course, the best; but, if you cannot give
honey, substitute for it ale and sugar, boiled gently together in a clean,
well-tinned vessel, over a clear fire, for about five minutes. One pound
and a half of sugar may be added to each quart of ale, and the mixture is to
be skimmed, according as the scum rises to the surface, during boiling ;
when the syrup is taken from the fire, add to it about a tea-spoonful of com-
mon table-salt for each quart of syrup.

It is bad to be compelled to feed the bees in winter, as, by descending to
the bottom of the hive in order to get at the food, they expose themselves to
cold, and many perish; by early examination in autumn, and uniting weak
hives, together with judicious feeding at that season, if necessary, the win-
ter management will be simplified. ‘Some persons defer feeding until the
bees are absolutely in want. This is wrong; the assistance should be
rendered several weeks before the hive is in a state of positive destitution,
otherwise, when the food is given them, the bees will be too weak to par-
take of it. The best mode of feeding is, to put the honey, or syrup, as the
case may be, into a shallow box; lay over the sweet liquid a sheet of
strong paper, perforated with holes, through which the bees can suck the

BEES. 454

syrup without falling into the mess, or becoming clogged by it. Attach the
box to the mouth of the hive; the bees will soon make it out, enter, and
remove the store to their cells. It is bad to lift up the hive for the purpose
of feeding, as, by so doing, the temperature of the interior is lowered, and
the stock often destroyed. When the feeder is attached to the entrance of
the hive, all this is obviated.

| Vil MANAGEMENT DURING WINTER AND EARLY SPRING.

' Autumn and Winter Care. —One of the most important particulars con-
nected with bee management is taking care that they are abundantly supplied
with food in autumn, and also taking care at that season to ascertain whether
or not they are sufficiently strong in numbers, and, if not, unite the weak stocks,
so as to form s/rong ones. It is by such treatment as this that bees are pre-
served in health and strength during the winter, and in a condition to attend
properly to their brood in the early spring.

Feeding. —In a large straw hive, there should be left, at the autumnal
honey harvest, from twenty to twenty-five, or even, according to the size of
the hive, thirty pounds weight of honey, exclusive of the weight of hive,
stand, and bees. If, from any accident, the hive should be found deficient
in weight, you must make up the deficiency by artificial feeding, either with
honey, or with the mixture of beer and sugar, as has already been described.
It is not, however, very strong evidence of the apiarian skill of any one who
is compelled to feed his bees in the autumn; and, indeed, few should be
obliged to do so, but those who use foo small a hive, and whose swarms are
consequently too weak, too feeble in point of number, to acquire sufficient
wealth during the proper season for so doing, or from whom there has been
injudiciously taken too much store, at a period too late in the season to admit
of the bees replenishing the hive.

Narrowing the Entrance, and Covering. — Having ascertained that the
stocks are supplied with sufficient quantity of food for their support during
the winter, or that they are already possessed of enough, the next thing is
to narrow the entrance of the hive so that it will scarcely admit of the
passage of more than one bee at a time: and towards the middle of Novem-
ber the entrance should be closed nearly altogether. The hives should be
covered up with matting, fern, or other similar substance, in order to preserve
them from rain, frost, or, the most dangerous of all, the sun’s rays of a fine
winter’s day. These deceptive rays would afford a temptation to the bees
to sally forth, and the result would be that they would become chilled by the
cold. Few would survive the flight so as to return to the hive ; its tempera-
ture would fall, and the wholé stock would be lost. The hives should
remain thus carefully covered and closed until the beginning of March,

452 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

A coating of Roman cement, as previously mentioned, will protect the hives
from cold in winter, heat in summer, from moths, and from wet. When
there is snow on the ground, the entrances of the hives should be entirely
closed.

_ Dampness, and Ventilation. — To preserve from internal dampness, during
winter, carefully ventilate, placing a bell-glass, well covered with flannel,
ever the aperture on the top of the hive or box, removing it from time to time,
and carefully wiping away from its interior the damp formed by condensed
vapor.

Materials for Covering. —'The materials with which hives are covered and
surrounded should consist of dry leaves pressed closely together, or dry and
powdered charcoal or cinders, and may be several feet in thickness, to pre-
serve the bees in a cool and torpid state, and at a regular temperature, in
which state they should be kept as dry, dark, and quiet, as circumstances
will permit.

Spring Care. — As the spring approaches, the winter covering should be
gradually removed, and those hives which have been buried placed in their
summer situations. Smal] quantities of food should then be supplied, as
occasion requires, until the gooseberry and currant-bushes are in bloom, at
which time it may, in general, be considered that their winter is past.
Warm weather, accompanied with moderate showers, is most agreeable to
them at this period; and it is considered that flowers yield the greatest
amount of mellifluous juices when the weather is calm and suitable as above,
and with the wind blowing from any point of the compass from south tc
west inclusive.

Some pursue a mode of preserving bees by znterment during winter. It
consists of laying some very dry powdered earth upon the bottom of an old
cask, to the depth of about half a foot, pressed down very hard, and setting
upon this the stool with the hive; then preserving a communication with
the air, by cutting a hole in the cask, opposite to the mouth of the hive, and
placing a piece of ‘reed from the mouth of the hive to the hole in the cask ;
then covering the hive up with a quantity of dry earth similar to that on
which it stands.

In spring it is only necessary to remove the winter coverings gradually
and with caution ; to examine also the state of the bees’ provisions, and, if
necessary, feed them. Be cautious in at once giving them liberty, or in
doing so too early, or in unsettled weather. Many bees lose their lives from
neglect of these precautions, simple as they are, and obvious as their neces-
sity must appear to every reflective bee-keeper. It is well, for these reasons,
that the mouth of the hive should face due west, until all these dangers have
passed away ; of course, when the working season has arrived, all restraint

BEES. 453

must be removed, the aspect of the hive moved southward, and the insects
left entirely to themselves. When spring feeding is necessary, it is usually
in April, for then the demands of the young brood call for a greater con-
sumption of honey than ordinary ; and from want of attention to this circum-
stanve, hives have been lost so late in the season as the month of May.
Spring, also, say about the beginning of March, is the proper time for
transferring stocks from hives to boxes, remembering that the latter should
be previously well cleaned out, their interior smeared, and supplied with a
portion of honey, in a proper feeder. As the warm weather approaches,
shade the hives from the sun. If the bees be induced by the heat to attempt
injudicious or ill-timed swarming, and hang in clusters about the entrance
of the hives, if advisable, it can be checked by sprinkling them with some
water. They will mistake this for rain, and retire within the hives to
resume their work.

Vill. HOW TO TREAT THE PRODUCE OF THE HONEY HARVEST.

Removing. —In the first place, remove the store to some room without
fireplace, for the bees have been known to make use of even that mode of
access in order to come at the honey, which they are able to scent from a
considerable distance. Close all the doors and windows, previously having
in the room whatever implements are wanted—viz., some large glazed
earthen vessels, clean, new, horse-hair sieves, a strainer, some clean linen
cloths, and abundance of water to wash in. Some recommend burning cow-
dung, or rotten hay, at the doors and windows of the room in which the
work is being done, in order to keep away the bees.

The Combs. —The first care should be to examine the combs, and free
them from all dirt, grubs, young bees, or other foreign matters, remembering,
of course, to have previously well and thoroughly washed hands. Then cut
the combs horizdntally into pieces of an inch wide, and lay them on the
sieve over the glazed earthen vessels ; when they have dropped all the
honey that they will yield without squeezing, put them in the cloth already
mentioned, and wring it over another vessel ; this will furnish the second-
class honey — that spontaneously yielded is called virgin honey, and is equal
in purity to that obtained from the bell-glass. When all is obtained that can
be by squeezing through the cloth or bag, carefully cover up the two sorts,
put the comb, also well covered, into a vessel by itself, and remove all the
other cloths, vessels, and other utensils, to the apiary, that the bees may lick
them clean.

Obtaining and Preparing the Wax.— The next object is to obtain the
wax. For this purpose, put the combs into a clean vessel, and add as much
soft water as they will float in—distilled water would be best. but rain

454 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

will answer nearly as well. Place the vessel on a clear and not too hot fire,
and watch it, stirring occasionally, until the combs be completely liquefied.
Then strain this through a fine canvas bag, into a tub of cold water. The
water first flows through, and then the bag requires pressure to make it yield
the wax. A simple press recommended is, to have ready a piece of
smo th board of such a length that, when one end of it is placed in the tub
of cold water, the other end may be conveniently rested against, and securely
stayed, by your breast. Upon this inclined plane lay the dripping, reeking
strainer, and keep it from slipping into the cold water by bringing its upper
part over the top of the board, so as to be held firmly between it and your
breast. If the strainer be made with a broad hem round its top, a piece of
strong tape or cord passed through such hem will draw it close, and should
be long enough to form a stirrup for the foot, by which an additional power
will be gained of keeping the scalding hot strainer in its proper place on the
board ; then, by compressing the bag, or rather its contents, with any con-
venient roller, the wax will ooze through, and run down the board into the
cold water, on the surface of which it will set in thin flakes. When this
part of the operation is finished, collect the wax, put it into a clean saucepan,
in which is a little water, to keep the wax from being burned to the bottom ;
melt it carefully, for should it be neglected, and suffered to boil over, serious
mischief might ensue, liquid wax being of a very inflammable nature ; let it
be melted over a slow fire, and skim off the dross as it rises to the top; then
pour it into such moulds or shapes as may be desired, having first well
rinsed them, in order that you may be able to get the wax, when cold and
solid, out of them, without breaking either the moulds or the wax ; place
them, covered over with cloths, or with pieces of board, where the wax will
cool slowly, because the more slowly it cools, the more solid will it be, and

free from flaws and cracks. 'The wax may be bleached by re-melting it, and

running it several times into very thin cakes, suffered to cool, and exposed
to the influence of the air and sun. This will render it white. The honey
may also be clarified by placing the vessel containing it in hot water, and
continuing to skim as long as any scum arises. In order to preserve it, it
should be stored in jars, well bladdered and otherwise secured, and kept dry.

IX. THE DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES.

Diseases. — When properly attended to, and managed on the improved
system, bees are neither very subject to disease nor very liable to suffer
from the attacks of enemies. The. diseases to which they are subject are
diurrhea and dysentery. The latter is probably only produced by neglect
of the former ; at all events, we may regard the two affections as springing
from the one cause.

—— ~~

oe * :

BEES. 455

Columella speaks of diarrhea as a purging which seizes bees annually, in
the spring; and conceives it to be occasioned by the bees surfeiting them-
selves on the young flowers in their first repast, and recommends giving
them rosemary and honey diluted with water. According to others, this
looseness is occasioned by the bees feeding on what is called ‘‘ candied
honey,’”’ which is thought to be formed by being too long in the hive, too
stale, and hence sour and unfit for use. To prevent this, examine period-
ically the hives or boxes, and remove, on each occasion, a portion of the old
or mouldy combs. The presence of candied honey in a hive is so obnoxious
to bees that it frequently induces them to desert it.

The candied honey proves fatal to bees in another way beside their being
poisoned by it. When the bees find candied honey in the combs, they,
knowing its prejudicial qualities, if they have other and wholesome store,
throw it out of the combs, and it, of course, falls on the bottom-board of the
hive. They can then neither enter nor leave the hive without bedaubing
themselves, and their endeavors to free themselves and their companions
from the incumbrance only make matters worse. When bees are found
in this state, it is difficult to relieve them; but if anything will do so, it is
immersion in tepid water; for this purpose they can be swept into a tub
with the wing of a fowl, leave them in the water until insensible, and unite
them, when they revive a little, to the bees of another hive, taking care to
serve these latter similarly. Some attribute purging and dysentery to the
bees feeding on too pure honey, which is said not to be sufficiently substan-
tial for them by itself; and the cure recommended is to give them, from
another hive, combs well supplied with bee-bread or crude wax.

Enemies. —'The enemies of bees are far more numerous than their dis-
eases, including, as they do, poultry, mice, lizards, toads, frogs, snails,
slugs, caterpillars, moths, millipedes, wood-lice, ants, lice, spiders, wasps,

‘hornets. Fow/s should not be permitted in any apiary. They will kill and

eat the bees; and such as they do not destroy, they will annoy and disturb.
Mice do not dare attack the hive while the bees are vigorous; but as the
cold approaches, and the bees become less active, the mouse enters, and,
commencing with the lower combs, ascends by degrees as the bees become
torpid, until he either clears all away, or, by the smell of the honey he has
wasted on the board, induces other bees to come and plunder. As soon as
the warm weather returns, the surviving bees will also leave the hive in
disgust. The remedy is easy. By having the straw hives, —if such are
used, — coated exteriorly with Roman cement, the mice will be prevented
from nestling in the straw, whence otherwise they would speedily eat their
way into the interior; and, by narrowing the entrance of the hive in the
manner already described, the little intruders will be effectually kept out.
If the stands be placed on a single foot, or if the feet are so placed under

456 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the foot-board as to leave a wide, projecting ledge, no mice can arrive at
the hive. Toads will kill bees occasionally, but not in great numbers; and
the same remarks are applicable to Frogs. Snails and Slugs are not abso-
lutely enemies of bees, as they have no design upon them or their honey in
entering the hive, but merely do so from accident. The mischief done by
them consists in the alarm and confusion they occasion. The bees first
attack the unfortunate intruder, and kill him with their stings; after which,
they carefully encase him in propolis, effectually preventing putrefaction or
the production of maggots. Caterpillars — especially the wax-moths, so
called from the ravages they make amongst the combs as soon as they
obtain entrance — are very injurious. By having the legs of the stand
placed as has been described, no caterpillar can climb up to the hive; but
this will not prevent the moth herself entering and depositing eggs in the
hive; and so prolific are these moths, that a single brood would suffice to
destroy a whole stock. Periodical fumigation, and cutting away such
combs as contain the grubs, are the remedies to be adopted. Moths are
only nocturnal enemies; during the day there is nothing to fear from their
attacks. Let the entrance to the hive, therefore, be nearly closed in the
evening, and the bees will be protected from their ravages. Some recom-
mend, as a trap for moths, a bottle, or other vessel, with a long and narrow
neck increasing gradually to a wide mouth, and having a light in the neck,
to be placed under the hive in the evening. ‘This will destroy numbers.
Another particular to be attended to is to have the stocks sufficiently strong ,
and for this purpose, if the hive attacked be weak, unite to it the bees of
another hive, in the manner already described. ‘The bees are themselves,
if sufficiently strong in numbers, both willing and able to destroy the
intruders. If weak, they will necessarily fall victims. Millipedes, or Wood-
lice, are often produced by the stand being made of decayed wood, or the
hive being placed too near an old hedge. Let the stand be of new wood,
and strew soot on the ground under and about the hive. This will also
serve in part as a protection against the attacks of Ants. All such ants’
nests as are found in the neighborhood of a hive should be destroyed. Lice
are small parasitica] insects, of a red color, which adhere to the body of the
bee, and derive their nourishment from her juices. ‘They are about the
size of a grain of mustard-seed, or rather smaller; Morocco tobacco will
kill the lice, without injuring the bees. Spiders may be gotten rid of by
brushing away their webs wherever met with near the stand. Wasps and
Hornets are most noxious to bees. Dig up and destroy their nests wherever
they may be met with. Among the Birds most inimical to bees, may be
mentioned sparrows and swallows. Set traps near the hives, baited with
dead bees, and hang up a few of such birds as you kill on trees near the
stand.

hie

SILK-WORMS AND MULBERRY TREES. 457

SILK-WORMS AND MULBERRY TREES

ARE s0 inseparably connected, that one cannot be treated of without
inviting a consideration of the other; and for this reason it has been
deemed advisable to combine their description, as well as instructions
regarding their culture, in one article, in preference to speaking of them
separately. Up to the present time, the propagation of the silk-worm
has been almost exclusively confined to the sea-board Atlantic States ;
and, strangely enough, the region uf New England, with a comparatively
rigorous climate, has been the largest as well as the most profitable pro-
ducer of domestic silk. Many obstacles have hitherto retarded the silk
culture in the United States, prominent among which has been the slow
growth of the different species of mulberry tree, upon the leaves of
which silk-worms feed. The introduction of the morus multicaulis pro-
mised to remove this obstacle; but the plant was made the subject of a
wild speculation, which eventually ruined thousands of citizens, and
retarded the silk culture to an incalculable extent. Many of the South-
ern and Western, as well as all of the Southwestern States, possess pecu-
liar natural advantages for the culture of the silk-worm; and, with pro-
per attention, this branch might, in a few years, become a profitable one
in the hands of the agricultural community. Any farmer who has a
family of children, or dependants, able and willing to pick mulberry
leaves and take care of the worms, may safely embark in this under-
taking, as the outlay will be but trifling — being comprised in the pur-
chase of a few hundred silk-worm eggs, and an ounce of mulberry seed,
or a quantity of plants.

Many persons are led to infer, from a perusal of very elaborate articles
on the subject, that the business of silk culture is « very intricate and
difficult one. Like every other new pursuit, it presents sume obstacles
to the uninitiated: but these once surmounted, it becomes as simple and
easy as is the raising of cattle or poultry. During the brief existence
which Nature has assigned the worm, all it requires is shelter from cold
and moisture, together with an adequate supply of the proper descrip-
tion of feed. These wants satisfied, there can be little danger of failure ;
and, indeed, numbers have been eminently successful who never had any
other guide than their own experience. The profits are very consider-
able. One acre of mulberry trees will feed 120,000 worms, from which
forty pounds of silk can be obtained. Four or five intelligent children
are capable of attending to this number of worms, and the period of
labor does not exceed five weeks.

458 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Description of the Silk-Worm, and of the Mode of Propagation.—One
ounce of eggs will produce about 40,000 worms, which are usually
hatched out in May, when the mulberry tree begins to put forth its
leaves. The best eggs are those of a lustrous dark grey color, which
will sink when immersed in wine. White or yellow eggs are worthless.
The eggs are kept in a dry, cool situation until the proper time for hatch-
ing them arrives, when they are spread on tables in an apartment the
temperature of which is raised to 80° Fahr., and in eight or ten days the
worms begin to make their appearance. When they issue forth from
the eggs they are nearly black, and not more than a line in length. They
immediately seek for nourishment, and, if supplied with mulberry leaves,
will attach themselves thereto, when they may be removed to properly-
constructed frames. They generally live about fifty days, and their
voracity increases with their age and growth. During their existence,
they undergo four different changes, each occupying about twenty-four
hours, and with each transformation exchanging their old and dark skin
for one of a lighter shade. These changes are always attended by a
condition of torpor, and many worms die while passing through them ;
but those which recover immediately eat with as much voracity as before.
When the worms have successfully passed through all their moultings,
they are nearly two inches in length, and of a greyish-white color. At
this time their voracity is truly astonishing; the mulberry leaves disap-
pear before them with almost incredible rapidity; and where several
thousand are feeding in one room, the noise made in eating very much
resembles that occasioned by the beating of a storm of sleet against
panes of glass in windows. When worms are ready to spin, their bodies
present a shining and somewhat transparent appearance, their appetites
fail, and they eat little, but appear to be anxious, stretching out their
heads in all directions, as if seeking for something. These being sepa-
rated from the others, are conveyed to a place prepared with small dry
branches of oak, ete. on which they ascend; each one selecting a place
for itself. The worm commences its work by fastening silken threads
to the branch on which it is located, and then gradually proceeds to en-
velop itself in them. When its living tomb is completed, it is about one
inch or one inch and a half in length, and presents an egg-shaped ap-
pearance. This work occupies about seven or eight days, during the two
first of which the little workman is visible; but after that time he dis-
appears under the continued addition of fine silken threads to the inte-
rior of the walls of his cell. The worm then passes into the chrysalis
state, and, if left undisturbed, will, in a few days, emerge from the
cocoon in the form of a butterfly, which eats its way through the silken

SILK-WORMS AND MULBERRY TREES. 459

walls, thus rendering them of but little value. To prevent this, all the
cocoons not needed for breeding purposes, are, as soon as completed, put
into an oven, and exposed to a high temperature, by which the chrysales
are killed. If it is desired to reel the silk immediately, the cocoons are
immersed in scalding water, which not only destroys the chrysales, but
also softens the gum and frees the threads. The hardiest, brightest, and
most substantial cocoons are saved for seed, strung on threads by means
of a long needle, so passed through them as not to injure the occupant,
and hung up in a moderately warm position. Both male and female
cocoons are kept—those of the male being long and round, while the
female cocoons are marked by greater size and rotundity. In fifteen or
twenty days the butterflies make their appearance, and being placed
on pasteboard or a woollen cloth, the female soon deposits her eggs.
One hundred pairs of cocoons, weighing about a pound, will produce one
ounce of seed.

Cocoonery. — For a new beginner, any spare room in a dwelling may
serve the purpose, provided it can be well ventilated in mild, fair wea-
ther. A frame four feet square may be made by connecting together
four posts, on which slide-rests are fixed. On alternate rests, place
frames filled with meshes of catgut or twine, on which the worms may
be fed, and beneath each network frame place another covered with heavy
white paper, on which all the filth and excrements passing through the
meshes may collect, and thence be removed without disturbing the worms.
The paper frames shouldbe placed sufficiently near to the others to enable
the worms which fall through to reach the meshes, and crawl up again:
this they will do in search of the leaves, with which the frames of net-
work should always be covered. Each day’s hatching should be placed
on separate frames, and, during the first week the worms should be fed
two or three times a day, but afterwards as fast as the leaves are con-
sumed or become withered. The frames should be cleaned every two or
three days, or even more frequently ; and in hot weather the apartment
should be kept airy and cool. In wet or damp weather, however, the
windows must be closed, and in no case must the sun be allowed to shine
on the worms. Never surfeit the worms, nor supply them with leaves
covered with moisture.

Spinning and Reeling the Silk. — Many machines have been invented
for this purpose, which reel and twist the silk directly from the cocoons
and also manufacture it into sewing-silk. Silk is sometimes reeled while
the gluten which connects together the threads is still moist, when, by
uniting the filaments together as they are drawn from the cocoons, a
more firm support and strong thread is produced. The machine best

460 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

adapted to the purpose is the Piedmontese reel, which is so simple
as to be within the comprehension and capacity of any ordinary indivi-
dual.

Casualties. — Silk-worms are subject to many casualties, besides suf-
fering severely from want of cleanliness, cold apartments, moisture, and
tempests. Large numbers are every year killed by the operation of some
or all of these causes; but more disastrous than any other is the effect
of thunder—the most beautiful worms, which have passed safely through
all their moulting seasons, being frequently killed by the operation of
electricity. Red ants are great enemies of the silk-worm, as also spiders,
mice, and rats.

Bombyx Cynruta, a new variety of silk-worm recently introduced into
Europe from the East Indies, and naturalized in Malta, will not only eat,
but thrive upon, the leaves of the Castor-Oil Plant (Palma Christi), and
also on those of lettuce, wild endive, the weeping willow, ete. It has
also the advantage of reproducing itself several times in the course of a
year. ‘The cocoon not being entirely closed, the chrysalis may enter the
butterfly state, and emerge from its cell, without injuring the value of
the silk; consequently the grower is not forced to sacrifice the grub in
order to save the cocoon. ‘I'he aperture in the latter is covered in a
very novel manner. On the side from which the butterfly issues, the
cocoon is terminated in the form of a cone, formed by the convergence
of a crown of stiff, continuous threads, running in such a manner as to
prolong that part of the cocoon, and render the entrance impassable from
the outside, while it is easily traversed by the imprisoned grub, which,
as it is transfurmed, pushes its way out, by stretching the elastic sides
of this cone, the apex of which has never been closed. The stiff threads
constituting the cone-shaped appendages of the cocoon are glued, doubled,
and folded on each other in such a manner as to retain their primitive
integrity after the hatching and flight of the butterfly. If this silk-worm

were introduced into our Southern and Western States, its propagation
and cultivation might be pursued with great advan for there the
Palma Christi grows wild in large quantities.

Gaturnia CeanorHa. — This is another variety of silk-worm, recently
discovered in California, It is of the same species as the Chinese silk-
worm, but said to be far superior. Silk of excellent quality has been
produced from it.

Muuserry Trees. — Several different varieties of the mulberry are
advantageously used in feeding the silk-worm; the white (MM. alba), (Fig.
260), which is its proper food, being extensively cultivated for that pur-
pose; and the red (M. rubra) growing wild in many parts of the United

i
4
x

SILK-WORMS AND MULBERRY TREES. 461

States. Both these varieties are very hardy and many-leaved, and the
cocoons of the worms fed on them are extremely large. The most valu-

Fig. 260.

Prati I
(Lie,

able tree, however, is the Chinese (MM. multicaulis), (Fig. 261), which has
been extensively and successfully cultivated in the United States. In

Fig. 261.

aus
Sys

Wart

WE
one

two years a plantation of these trees will be in full bearing from the
cuttings, and will produce a larger yield of leaves to the acre than the
39 *

462 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

M. alba. It is well adapted to the climate of the United States, and ina
proper soil and exposure will continue to support life during any ordinary
winter; but it can only be produced by planting slips from the parent
stem, as it yields seeds but sparingly, and these will frequently produce
plants differing widely from the original. A hybrid variety of the
mulberry has been raised in France by shaking the pollen of the
moretta flowers over those of the multicaulis. The hybrid thus ori-
ginated has large flat leaves, like those of the Chinese seedling, which
are firm, and much relished by worms. Their powers of endurance
are fully equal to those of the multicaulis, while their precocity, and
the firm texture of their leaves, admirably adapt them to the silk
culture.

Soil. —In order to insure a rapid increase, the soil, more especially
for the multicaulis, should be a light, sandy loam, in good condition.
Plants have been known to thrive well in a thoroughly cultivated clay
soil, but with more or less loss of cuttings, particularly of single buds.
Stony ground, unfit fur general tillage, will answer equally as well as
any other. A mulberry grove should, if possible, have a southern slope,
and it is advantageous to have the shelter of a forest, or of high ground,
on the north and west.

Culture.—The seed of the white mulberry may be sowed in drills at a
convenient distance apart, and about as thickly as those of onions:
cover with earth to the depth of about half an inch. The best time for
sowing is during the month of April. Plant beans or potatoes between
the rows, to keep the ground clear of weeds, and to yield a remunera-
tion for the labor bestowed. The second year cut the seedlings down
with a sharp knife to within three or four inches of the ground, and
they will give another crop of leaves the same season. For planting
out, the hedge form is the best; setting the young trees eighteen inches
apart. Cuttings should be taken from the growth of the previous sum-
mer, and be from six to twelve inches long. They should be planted in
rows nine inches apart, with eighteen inches between the rows; soaked
twenty-four hours before planting; and well watered in dry weather.
The slips should be planted in a slanting position, with the buds upper-
most. The white mulberry has the advantage of being clothed with
leaves fifteen or twenty days in advance of the earliest of the other
varieties; but no leaves should be gathered from the white mulberry
until after the fourth year, as it will injure the growth and constitution
of the tree. When required for a hedge, the plants may be set out when
one or two years old. Cut them down the first year to within four or
six inches of the ground, only leaving two buds; and, after another

———

SILK-WORMS AND MULBERRY TREES. 463

year’s growth, one of the new sprouts may be laid down in the line of
the fence, and tied to the next plant; the others being left to grow
upright. The buds from the laid sprout will send up shoots, and fill up
all the intervals. Sprouts springing from the roots should be cut away,
unless wanted for layers. The plants may be set out about fifteen inches
apart. The Morus Multicaulis, thus named on account of its tendency
to throw out many stems from the same root, may be most certainly
increased by layering the leaves in slight trenches about five or six
feet apart, and covering them with fine-sifted earth. They should first
be deprived of part of their side branches, and the ground should have
sufficient warmth to start the buds immediately, or many will perish.
Cover the root deeper than the stera; hand weed, hoe, and plough the
ground, so as to keep it open, and free from weeds. When the plants
are about twelve inches high, it will be advantageous to draw the earth
around the stems. ‘lhe green branches may be layered without separa-
ting them from the tree; and, by removing the terminal bud, many small
plants will be produced. Unripe wood, the growth of the same season,
may also be used for cuttings, and in good soil, with careful shading and
proper cultivation, will make thrifty plants. Single bud cuttings more
frequently fail from irregularity in the seasons than do those of greater
length, which commonly germinate more than one bud each. ‘The
multicaulis possesses, more largely than the other varieties, the desira-
ble property of throwing up numerous small pliant stalks, without
forming a main stem; of producing a rapid growth of tender leaves,
which are speedily renewed ; and of quickly striking root from cuttings
of the stalks and branches. By heading the stalks down nearly to the
ground every year, a rich growth is produced; and it is comparatively
easy to multiply them ad infinitum from the roots or cuttings; yet,
although so readily increased, they require great care and attention in
hand-weeding and stirring the earth; and the farmer who thinks he has
accomplished everything by merely placing them in the ground, will, in
the autumn, discover that his trees have suffered so much for want of
attention, as to seriously retard their growth. By transplanting the
trees, and setting them out in rows ten feet distant from tree to tree,
with proper care and culture, five times the amount may be raised from
an acre.

If it is desirable to conduct the business on an extensive scale, a choice
may be made between three modes of planting the Morus Multicaulis,
viz.: that of standards, in fields on which farm crops are raised; of
half-standards, in grounds devoted to that purpose; and of dwarf hedge-
plants, for field divisions, ete. For standards, the trees may be planted

464 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

at such distance apart as may be determined upon, never allowing it to
be less than ten or fifteen feet; but half-standards will only require a
separation of from three to seven feet. Before planting in the latter
mode, the ground should be well trench-ploughed, the soil finely pulve-
rized, and thoroughly manured, when the sets may be put in the rows in
quincunx form; that is, each tree opposite the space between two of the
next row. A space of four feet being left between each row, there will,
of course, be some vacant ground, which may be profitably cropped with
potatoes or beans, the tillage of which will greatly facilitate the growth
of the trees. Half-standards may be taken from the nursery at two years
old, and, if very thrifty, at one year; they will require no pruning,
except where limbs trail toward the ground, and should always be trans-
planted in the spring of the year. Iedge-planting may be conducted in
the same way as previously indicated for the white mulberry.

CHAPTER X.
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL TREES, ETC.

THE CULTURE OF FLOWERS—PLANS FOR FLOWER-GARDENS—DESCRIPTION OF
STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS—ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS—ORNAMENTAL
AND USEFUL TREES—MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR.

I. FLOWERS.

General Remarks. — The pre-requisites of flower-beds and composts are,
depth, friability, and necessary richness. The practice of trenching the
sites of flower-beds to the depth of three feet is found to be of great service ;
not that any of the fibrous roots can reach so low, but because the bed
should be quickly drained after much rain, and that in dry weather the roots
may be invited to run as deep as they have a tendency to go. There is
another reason for deep trenching, which is, no doubt, as beneficial to
flowers as it is to all other plants, viz., they receive a greater share of that
genial moist warmth which is at all times rising from the interior of the
earth to its surface. This is a circumstance not enough attended to, and by
many practitioners is quite unheeded ; it is, nevertheless, a great assistant to
vegetation. According as we descend, the temperature increases. In the
winter and spring months it is by several degrees warmer at the depth of a
few feet than at or near the surface. The ground being opened to that
depth, therefore, permits the ascent of this warm steam in cold weather,
and allows it to rise like a refreshing vapor, when the weather is hot and

_ dry; in both seasons of much advantage to the roots.

Friability. — That flowers may have every encouragement from the con-
stitutional texture of the compost they are placed on, it is prepared by being
compounded, erated, and screened, till it is free from stones, clods, &c.,

Fig. 262.

and all of a uniform consistence! It should not be liable to knead in work-
ing, nor run together under heavy rain. By the addition of sand, rotten

25 (465)

466 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

dung, or leaf-mould, it must be sufficiently porous to receive, and as readily
discharge, any excess of water, as well as allow the penetration of every
quality from the air which is beneficial to plants. A garden syringe, like
the following, will be found very convenient in applying water to flower-
plants. ;

Enriching. — The high fertility of the soil intended for flowers is one of
the principal provisions to be made for their prosperity. In the compost
every ingredient should be present that experience has discovered to be
useful, and every quality added which successful practice sanctions, or
what rational ingenuity may suggest. The luxuriance of the plants depends
on the suitableness and temperament of the compost ; and the richness of
the tints depends on the qualities contained in it.

Coverings, §-c.— For the defence of fine bed-flowers from inclement
weather, and to preserve them in beauty as long as possible, the florist who
wishes to excel in the art, and derive the utmost satisfaction from the pur-
suit, should provide himself with every necessary appendage for the purpose.
The means of temporary protection against rain, hail, or snow, and awnings
for the preservation of the full-blown flowers, are both necessary.

Stages, as well as beds, require these appurtenances. Few lovers of
flowers, who take delight in their cultivation, can grudge the expense of
proper means for both shade and shelter. Commercial florists have arrange-
ments for these purposes on an extensive scale, embracing all the advantages
of convenience and utility ; the amateur, or flower-fancier, adopts as many
of these conveniences as are sufficient for his more limited designs.

For all bed-flowers, particularly hyacinths and tulips, the beds should be
surrounded by boarding from one to three feet high, to give, for ease of
examination, the necessary elevation to the flowers. Staples driven in at
the corners and along the sides of this boarding serve to admit wooden or
iron hoops, which, connected along the centre and at the eaves with slight
laths, form a sufficiently firm and effective frame to bear any covering of
mats or canvas.

Carnation stages are either single or double, — that is, having one or both
sides composed of graduated shelves. In the one case, a walk in front is
sufficient ; in the other, the walk is carried all around. Those for auriculas
are similar, both being raised on feet, each of which stands in pans of water,
to prevent the visits of creeping insects.

When the foliage of the plants has advanced so far as to be in jeopardy
from frost, &c., the hoops are placed, and the coverings got ready to be

inal

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 467

employed as the weather directs. Tulips are, much more than others.
liable to be injured, especially during the months of February, March, and
April. They are then most easily damaged by the operations of the
weather, or by water resting near, and afterwards freezing around the bud ;
and, though every care should be bestowed to protect the plants from such
casualties, yet they must not be deprived of the full air too long a time, as
this would injure by enfeebling them. So much is over-covering to be
guarded against, that some intelligent cultivators use only small-meshed
nets as a defence, which are considered sufficient.

When the flowers begin to show color, preparations must be made to
erect the awning. ‘This is intended to shade them from a severe sun, and
shelter them from tempest winds. The frame should be as light in its con-
struction as is consistent with its stability against windy weather. It is
either a permanent erection of slender columns, eaves-plate, rafters, and
ridge-board, or a temporary framing of similar scantlings, screw-bolted
together for the purpose. The latter are preferred by private growers. No
directions need be given for a permanent structure, that any common carpenter
can supply and execute. But for those who only need a temporary thing of
the kind, the following description of a very suitable and convenient one may
be useful : The bed is surrounded by a fine gravel or sand walk, two and a
half feet wide ; on the outside of the walk, oaken trunks, sixteen inzhes leny |
naving central openings two inches square, are sunk and firmly rammed in
the ground, their tops level therewith. These trunks have each a capped
stopper, to be put in when the frame is taken away ; they remaining always
in their places, and serve as sockets to receive light columns six feet high,
turned out of three-inch-square stuff, having a two-inch-square tenon to fit
into the trunk, and also a smaller tenon at top, to pass through the eaves-
plate, and also receive the foot of the rafter which rests upon it. The
rafters meet on a ridge-board, to which they are fastened by a screw-bolt and
nut. Besides the corner columns, intermediate ones are added, according as
the length of the bed requires. ‘The canvas for the roof is in one piece,
fixed by its middle to the ridge-board, the two sides being movable on rollers
or otherwise, and rolled up or let down at pleasure. The ends and sides
are closed by curtains, and hung on headed studs driven into the end-rafters
and eaves-plate, by eyelet-holes worked in the upper leech of the curtains ;
at the bottom they are fastened down by tender-hooks or ties. Such a
frame and awning, if care be taken to lay it up dry in a spare room, will |
last for many years, and, when in use, may be made, by ornaments fixed at
the ends of the ridge and at the tops of the columns, not at all an unsightly
object, even in the flower-garden.

Plan of a Flower-garden.—Supposing the soil to have been in all

468 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

respects duly prepared, dug over and leveled, the next thing is to determine
upon the plan for the garden. It should certainly be a regular geometric
figure, and planted in masses, each bed containing flowers of one kind, so as
to produce something of the fine effect of a Turkey carpet when looked down
upon. .

We will suppose the plan (Fig. 264) to consist of twelve flower-beds on
grass, with a gravel-walk around, which may be bordered on one side by

Fig. 264,

beds of flowers, with little gravel openings, or be plain gravel, as may be

Fig. 265.

preferred. The walks should be smoothed and hardened by means of a
garden roller. There may be a conservatory into which the parlor-room
windows facing the south may open, and on the other side there should be
a shrubbery to unite it with the lawn. In the centre of the flower-garden
there may bea fountain. As the flower-garden is to be seen principally from
the dwelling-house windows, the nearest beds should be planted with dwarf-
flowers, so that those in the back beds may be seen; the shrubbery behind
to consist of laurustinus and arbutus, so as to afford a handsome green back-
ground to the flowers in summer, and yet afford a few flowers themselves in
winter and spring, when flowers are scarce in the beds. When the walks
are bordered with grass, an implement like the following, fitted to a straight
handle, is used for paring the edges.

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 469

Planting. —Get a few pots of Californian and other annuals usually
raised in pots, and plant them, putting three potfuls in each bed. In No.1,

Fig. 267.

put Phlox Drummondi, the flowers of which are crimson of various shades,
and let the stems be pegged down, so as to spread over the bed. No. 2
may be Lasthénia Californica, the flowers of which are yellow, and the
stems generally procumbent; but they may be pegged down to keep them
in their proper places, that is, to spread completely and regularly over the
-bed. No. 3 should be Neméphila insignis, the flowers of which are of a
beautiful blue, and which will not require pegging down. No. 4 may be
Erysimum Petrowskianum, the flowers of which are of a bright orange ; but
the stems must be pegged down, or they will grow tall and straggling.
No. 5 may be Nolana atriplicifdlia, the flowers of which are blue, and
40

470 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

resemble those of a convolvulus; this is a procumbent plant, and will not
need pegging. No. 6 may be Nemédphila atomaria, which has white
flowers, and is a dwarf plant. No. 7 may be Leptosiphon densiflorus. a
dwarf plant, with pale purple flowers. No. 8 may be Gilia bicolor, a
dwarf plant, with nearly white flowers. No.9 may be Gilia tricolor, a
dwarf plant, the flowers of which are white and very dark purple. No. 11
may be Leptosiphon androsaceus, a dwarf plant, with pale lilac flowers.
And No. 12, Schizopétalon Walkeri, the flowers of which are white, and
the stems must be pegged down. These are all annuals, which, if properly
treated by pegging down, and not planted too close, will produce a mass of
flowers in each bed only just above the surface of the ground, and will have
a charming effect from the windows. Most of them like a poor, clayey soil
best, and they will only require turning out of the pots, without breaking the
ball, into the places prepared for them. If it is thought there are too many
white beds, substitute Sanvitolia procumbens, the flowers of which are yel-
low, for No. 8, — but the seeds must have been sown the previous autumn to
bring it forward, as otherwise it will not flower till late in the summer ; and
Bartonia aurea, the flowers of which are of a golden yellow, may be planted
instead of No. 12. Cladanthus arabicus, formerly called Anthemis arabica,
which has yellow flowers, may be planted in No. 8, if Sanvitolia cannot be
obtained. Florists, however, can generally furnish these sorts.

Autumnal Flowers. — As most of the annuals will begin to look shabby in
July or the early part of August, we give the following list of half-hardy
plants for autumn: No. L, Verbena Melindres, bright scarlet; No. 2, Eno-
thera Drummondi, yellow; No. 3, Lobelia bicolor, blue; No. 4, Calceolaria
rugosa, pegged down; No.5, Verbena Tweediana, crimson; No.6, common
White Petunia; No. 7, Verbena Arraniana, or Henderson’s purple; No.
8, Calceolaria integrifolia, yellow; No. 9, Purple Petunia; No. 10, Verbena
teucrioides, white; No. 11, Frogmore Pelargonium, bright scarlet; No. 12.
Musk plant, yellow.

In October the following bulbs and other plants may be put in for flowering
in early spring. No.1, Van Thon tulips; No. 2, Cloth of gold, or common
vellow crocuses; No. 3, Blue hepatica; No. 4, Yellow crocuses, or White
Anemone; No. 5, Scilla verna and sibirica, blue; No.6, Arabis albida,
white ; No.7, Double pink hepatica; No. 8, Winter aconite; No. 9, Purple
crocuses ; No. 10, Snuwdrops; No. 11, Primroses; No. 12, White hepatica,
or Arabis alpina.

Laying out the Flower-garden.—If the above plan for a garden does not
meet the fancy, one can be drawn of any figure desired. In the first place,
the ground must be dug over, raked, and made perfectly smooth. ‘The
pattern, if a complicated one, should then be drawn on paper, covered with

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 471

regular squares, and the ground to be laid out must be covered with similar
squares, but larger, the usual proportion being that a square inch on the
paper represents a square foot on the ground. ‘The squares on the ground
are usually formed by sticking in wooden pegs at regular distances, and
fastening strings from peg to peg, till the whole ground is covered with a
kind of lattice-work of string. ach string is then chalked, and made to
thrill by pulling it up sharply and letting it go again, which transfers the
chalk from the string to the ground. When the ground is thus marked with
white squares, it is easy to trace upon it, with a sharp-pointed stick, any
pattern which may have been drawn on the paper; the portion in each
Square on the ground being copied on a larger scale from that on the paper.

Simple patterns, like that of the following figure, consisting of straight
lines, need only to be measured, and pieces of string stretched from pegs put

Fig. 268.

SEE aera

fetta da LD has hy

in at the proper distances, so as to form straight lines, oblongs, squares, tri-
angles, or diamonds. If a circle is to be traced, it is done by getting a piece
of string half the length of the diameter of the circle, with a piece of stick
tied to each end. One stick is then driven into the ground in the centre of
the circle, and a line is traced with the stick at the other extremity of the
string, which is drawn out quite tight. An oval is made by tracing two
circles, the circumscribing line of one of which just touches the centre of the
other; short lines are afterwards made at the top and bottom, and the
central lines are obliterated. A square only requires a peg at each corner,
witn a chalked string drawn from peg to peg; and an oblong, or parallel-
ogram, is made by joining two eommon squares, and taking off the corners,
if required. A heart-shaped pattern is made by drawing a straight line from

472 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

a to & (Fig. 268), and then fixing a peg with a string tied to it half the
length of the straight line, and another peg at the end, exactly in the middle

Fig. 269.

of the line, and drawing half a circle with it ; then taking a peg with a string
half the length of the other, and another peg to the end, and tracing with it
the smaller half circles, c and d. With the same strings and pegs you may
easily trace, or have traced, the following figures. Even the latter, which

Fig. 270. Fig. 271.

appears at first sight a very difficult figure to form on the ground, will be
just as easily traced as the others. It will be observed that in all these
figures the straight line is only to serve as a guide to show the proper places
for fixing the pegs; and that it is only to be formed by a piece of string
stretched by pegs from one end of the figure to the other, which is to be
removed as soon as the figure is sketched, and which is not to be traced on
the ground at all.

With the aid of these figures, and the pegs and strings, several very
complicated gardens may be formed ; for instance, that shown in the fol-
lowing outline. This garden is composed of a bed in the centre for a tree-
rose, with a circle of dwarf-roses ; a gravel-walk surrounds these ; and there
are five heart-shaped beds, which may be planted with scarlet pelargo-
niums, yellow calceolarias, petunias white and purple, and tall yellow
mimulus; and the crescent-shaped peds wnich are on grass may all be
planted with different kinds of verbenas. This plan is also a good
design for a rosery,— the roses to be planted in the beds, and in the

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 473

half-crescents, which must be on grass, with gravel-walks between the
grass-plots. ;

All the beds intended for bulbs and half-hardy plants should be particu-
larly well drained ; and the best way of doing this is to dig out the soil to
the depth of two feet or more, and then put in a layer of hrick-bats and other
rubbish, to the depth of nine inches or a foot. On this may be placed a

Fig. 272.

layer of rich, marly soil, in which the bulbs are to be planted. Dahlias,
hollyhocks, and other tall-growing, showy-flowered plants, should have
similar beds prepared for them; but the soil should be made very rich by
the addition of the remains of an old hot-bed, or some other kind of half-
rotten animal manure.

Arrangement of Colors.— In the directions which have now been given
for planning and planting the beds, it has been intended merely to say what
may be done, and not what is absolutely necessary. Indeed, it will be better
for each cultivator to vary the flowers as much as possible, according to taste,
provided care is taken that the plants are, as nearly as possible, of the same
height, or that they rise gradually, and that the colors contrast well. The
rule in the latter case is, always to put one of the primitive colors—red, blue,
and yellow — next another of these colors, or some color compounded of the
other two, using white wherever you cannot find any handsome plants of a

color that will suit the bed for which they are wanted. Thus, for example,
40 *

ATA FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

if one bed be planted with red, the next may be planted with blue, yellow,
green, hair-brown, or white, but never with any shade of purple, as red
enters into the composition of that color; nor with any shade of reddish-
brown; purple, indeed, must always be next to yellow, hair-brown or
white, but never next blue, red-brown, or red. Orange will not look well
near yellow or red, and lilac must not approach blue or pink. A little
practice will generally do more than any lengthened details. Generally
speaking, you may take the same taste to guide the arrangement of the
colors of the flowers in the parterre that is used in choosing the colors of
female dress.

Fragrant Flowers. — When it is settled what to plant in the beds of the
garden, — supposing the plan of Fig. 264 to be chosen, — the next thing to
be thought of is the beds around it. These should, on the whole, remain
unplanted, unless they are sown with mignonette, or something of that
kind. The shrubberies should consist chiefly of the finer kinds of hardy
evergreens, — at least, that which is opposite the windows of the house ; —
the other shrubbery may be planted with rhodudendrons, acacias, and kal-
mias, — the rhododendrons being furthest from the walk, and carried a little
out into the adjoining grounds, so as to make a broken line, projecting in
some places and receding in others, and here and there mixed with bushes
of phillyrea, alaternus, holly of various kinds, and cralegus. With regard
to the beds near the house, let there be a lonicera flexuosa trained over each
window, on account of its delightful fragrance in summer. For a similar
reason, have chimonanthus fragrans against the walls between the win-
dows, and mignonettes and violets in the beds. The flowers of the ever-
green magnolia, and those of the orange, have a slightly oppressive
fragrance, as have those of the heliotrope and the tuberose; but those
of the mignonette, the lemon-scented verbena, the rose, the violet, and
lonicera flexuosa, are refreshing, at the same time yielding delicious
perfume.

Cultivating Bulbs. —In giving some hints on the cultivation of flowers,
we begin with the dulbs, as they flower first in the spring. The crocuses
and snow-drops should be planted, five or six together, as close as possible,
so as to form little tufts; and these, when once planted, should never be
removed, unless they should grow out of bounds, so as to spoil the shape
of the bed. The tulips, on the contrary, should be taken up as soon as

heir leaves begin to decay, and kept in a dry place till the proper time for
planting them next year.

There are three kinds of plants which are said to have bulbous roots, —
those which are solid, and which should be properly called corms, — such
as the crocus, the corn-flag, and many of the half-hardy plants with similar

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 475

half-tubular flowers ; the tunicated bulbs, which may be peeled off in scales,
such as the onion, the hyacinth, and the tulip; and the scaly bulbs, such as
the lily. Now, the real roots of all these plants are the long fibres sent
- down by the lower part of the bulb, which may be seen plainly in hyacinths
grown in glasses, and in any of the kinds, if taken up while in a growing
state; and what is called the bulb is, in all the corms, only a contracted
stem; but, in the tunicated and scaly bulbs, the bulbous part is formed of
a contracted stem and metamorphosed leaves. On examining a hyacinth,
there will be found at the base of the bulb a flat, fleshy substance, called
the root-plate, and this is, in fact, the contracted stem of the plant; while
the tunics or scales are metamorphosed leaves. It will be useful to remem-
ber these distinctions in cultivating the garden, as all plants having corms
never flower well till they have been allowed to form a mass, which they
will not do till they have been in the ground three or four years. Many
persons fancy that the Cape bulbs require to be taken up every year, but
this is a mistake ; all the kinds of gladiolus, ixia, tritonia, and other similar
plants, will live in the open ground, and flower well, if suffered to grow in
masses, and be warmly covered in winter. Some persons practise success-
fully the plan of manuring the beds of tulips and hyacinths every year, so
that they may be grown together in the same beds without taking up, for
several years in succession.

Reserve Garden Spot. — It is well, in order to keep the flower-garden in
a proper state, to have what may be called a reserved plot of ground, in
which the plants are to be brought forward, till they are in a proper state
for transplanting into the proper flower-garden. This reserve garden is
generally placed near the stable, both to have it out of sight and for the
convenience of manure, as it must contain hot-beds and frames, for rearing
tender annuals, striking cuttings, and, in short, for performing all those
gardening operations which require to be carried on out of sight. In this
spot the Californian annuals are to be brought forward.

Choose a piece of hard ground, —a walk will do, —or any place that
has been much trodden on, and cover it about an inch thick with light, rich
soil. In this the seeds of the annuals should be sown in September, and
suffered to remain till the bulbs have faded, and the annuals are wanted to
cover the beds, which will probably be about April. The annuals must
then be taken up with the spade, in patches, and being removed to the
flower-garden, they must be laid carefully on the beds, so as to cover them
exactly ;— the spaces between the patches being filled with soil, and
pressed gently down, so that the surface of the beds may be as even as pos-
sible. These annuals will come into blossom in May, but they are killed by
the dry heat of summer; and, though they would sow themselves if per-

476 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

mitted to seed, it is better to remove them as soon as they have done flower-
ing. The worst of permitting plants to sow themselves is, that early in
autumn the flower-beds will have a very untidy appearance, as the ground
not only becomes rough, but it is covered with dead stalks and leaves,
which have always a most desolate appearance ; and these cannot be removed
till the seed has fallen, while the beds must not be forked over and raked, for
fear of destroying the seedlings. It is, therefore, much better, as soon as
the annuals have done flowering, to take them up and throw them away, —
a supply of seed being preserved by having left some plants in the reserve-
ground for that purpose. A second or spring sowing of the Californian
annuals ray be made in the reserve-ground, for use, if needed, in, the
autumn.

Culture of Annuals. — Annuals are plants that live only one year, or,
rather, only a few months, for they are generally sown early in spring, and
die as soon as they have ripened their seeds, at the latter end of summer, or
the beginning of autumn. ‘These plants are of three kinds, — hardy, half-
hardy, and tender.

The hardy annuals are sown in March, April, or May, but the second
month is to be preferred, if the weather is tolerably open. The ground in
which they are to be sown is then forked over and raked, and a little round,
firm place is made by pressing the bottom of the saucer of a flower-pot on
the ground, and then scattering a few seeds on the firm place, taking great
care that the seeds do not lie one upon another. The seeds are then firmed,
as the gardeners call it, by pressing the saucer again on them, and some
earth is strewed lightly over to finish the operation. Instead of the saucer
of a flower-pot, regular gardeners perform that part of the process with
their spades. The idea is, to securely fix every seed in the ground before
it begins to germinate, in order to produce a strong and healthy plant.
After the seeds are sown, it is customary to put a piece of stick into the
ground, with the name of the seeds written upon it, to mark the place; or,
if preferred, write the name on a card, or a bit of pasteboard, and stick it
in a notch or cleft made in the stick.

When the seeds have come up, — which, in the spring, is generally from
a fortnight to six weeks after sowing, according to their natures, — the
seedlings may be thinned out, and the supernumerary plants either trans-
planted or thrown away. If the seedlings are to be transplanted, care
should be taken not to break or injure the roots, and a little hole should be
made with a stick for each seedling in the place to which it is to be
removed ; the earth being pressed close to the root at the bottom of the hole
before the rest of the hole is filled in, as, if any hollow place is left around
the root, it will decay, instead of growing. Seedling hardy annuals are,

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. ATT

however, very seldom worth the trouble of transplanting. Many persons
turn a flower-pot over every patch of seeds, from the idea that it will muke
them come up sooner, and protect them from birds. It is, however, a bad
plan, as air and light are particularly necessary to seedling plants, and,
when they are even partially deprived of these important agents, they
become drawn up, with weak, slender stems, and thin, discolored leaves.

Some annuals, such as the mignonette and the larkspur, are much
longer before they vegetate than others, and they are better sown in autumn.
Others, such as the Erysimum Perowskianum, the eschscholtzia, and the
coreopsis, will often last two or three years, especially if they happen to be
late in flowering the first season. These also do best sown in autumn; but
they must be protected, if the winter should be severe, by laying a mat over
the bed.

Half-hardy Annuals. —The half-hardy annuals, such as the French and
African marigolds, the Chinese and German asters, the zinnias, the purple
jacobea, the sweet sultan, the purple and yellow everlastings, and other
similar plants, may be sown in pots, and plunged into a slight hot-bed in Feb-
ruary or March. As soon as they come up, and have got their second pair
of leaves, the earth should be turned out of the pots, and the seedlings, being
carefully picked out, should be transplanted into other pots, three or five in
each, according to the size they are expected to attain when full grown, and
the pots again plunged into the hot-bed. Sometimes they are transplanted a
second time ; but they are generally left till May, when they are removed to
the open border, to the places where they are intended to flower. Wher
they are planted in the border, they may be transplanted in the ordinary
way, or the ball of earth may be turned entire from the pot into a
hole made to receive it. ‘This is generally considered the best plan, as it
prevents the plants from receiving any check by their removal. Bromp-
ton, ten-week, and German stocks, though quite hardy, make better
plants when treated like half-hardy annuals, as they flower earlier and more
vigorously.

Tender Annuals. —'The tender annuals, such as balsams, cock’s combs,
globe amaranths, &c., must be sown in February or March, in pots of light,
rich earth, and plunged in a hot-bed. As soon as the plants come up, they
should be transplanted into pots of the very smallest size, one in each pot:
and these small pots should be set in the hot-bed again, as near the glass as’
possible, and slightly shaded during sunshine. In a week or two, as soon
as the roots have made their appearance on the outside of the ball of earth
within the pot, —which is known by turning the bail of earth, with the plant
in it, carefully out of the pot, without breaking it, —the plants are shifled
into pots a size larger than what they were in before, and the space filled up

478 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

with light, rich soil. In another week or two the piants must be shifted
again into pots a little larger, always using light, rich mould to fill up the
pots, and taking care that the pots are well drained, by putting pieces of
broxen pot at the bottom. As soon as the plants are shifted, the pots must
be replunged in the hot-bed, and shaded for the remainder of the day. The
shifting and replunging must be continued till the plants begin to show
flower-buds, after which they must neither be shifted nor plunged in the
hut-bed any more, but gradually hardened, by the frame in which they are
placed being left open all day, and, at last, only partially closed, even at
night, till the plants will bear setting out entirely in the open air, unless
they should be intended to flower in a green-house, in which case they may
be removed to the green-house very soon after they have shown flower-buds.

Perennials. — Perennials are those permanent plants which are not
woody, and yet remain in the ground as long as most kinds of shrubs, pro-
ducing flowers and seeds every year. Perennials are of two kinds, — those
that die down to the ground every autumn, and send up fresh stems from the
root the following spring, —and those which remain green all the year, as,
for example, those that have tuberous roots, such as the dahlia. Bulbs are
also perennials; but of these we have already spoken.

Most kinds of perennials are propagated by dividing the roots ; but, in the
ease of the dahlia, ranunculus, and anemone, care must be taken to choose
only those portions of the tubers that have buds or eyes, as they are called,
as otherwise the tuber, though it will send out fibrous roots, will not pro-
duce a stem; and, in dividing fibrous-rooted plants, care must be taken that
the divided part is furnished with buds. Almost all kinds of perennials
may also be propagated by cuttings ; and those of pinks and carnations are
called pipings, because, instead of being cut, they are pulled asunder ata
joint, and this gives the separated parts a hollow appearance, like small
pipes. ‘Tubers are frequently taken up every autumn, and those of the ra-
nunculus and anemone are replanted in November or January, the former
season being rather preferable. The tubers of the dahlia are generally
taken up in November, and replanted in May or June.

Most perennials are improved by taking up occasionally, and replanting
them in another place. This used to be accounted for by supposing that
plants threw out excrementitious matter, which, after a few years, poisoned
the soil in which they grew; but it is now supposed that, as every plant
requires peculiar earths for its nourishment, they must be removed when
they have exhausted all the particular kind of earth they want which grows
within their reach. Itis rather difficult to explain this without entering
into long details; but it will be sufficient for our present purpose merely to
state the fact that plants do require their roots to have a constant supply of

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 479

tresh earth and, to meet this want, nature has provided that the roots of
trees, and of all plants that are intended to remain several years in the soil,
elongate themselves every year, so as to be continually able to obtain a fresh
supply of nourishment. In gardens, however, the constant digging that is
going on for the culture of annual plants is unfavorable to the elongation of
_ the roots of the perennials, and consequently it is absolutely necessary that
those plants should occasionally be taken up and replanted. The season for
taking up and replanting perennial plants is either in autumn, after they
have done growing, or in spring, before they begin to shoot; and, if the
soil about the roots looks black and wet, or, as the gardeners express it,
sour, the roots should be washed quite clean before transplanting. When
the roots of plants are divided, it is either done with a sharp spade or a
knife, care being taken, in both cases, to make a clean cut, and not leave any
part bruised or jagged.

Biennials. — These are plants raised from seeds, which do not flower till
the second year, but which generally die as soon as they have ripened their
seeds. Biennials are usually sown in a bed of light, rich earth, in the open
year in the reserve ground, and then transplanted, in September, to the place
where they are to flower the ensuing year. The finer kinds, such as the
Brompton stocks and hollyhocks, should have a bed or pit prepared for them,
of rich, loamy soil, in which they are planted, with a small quantity of
manure. Wall-flowers, snap-dragons, and Canterbury bells, do not require
any further care than transplanting to the border; and, though they are
called biennials, they will frequently live and flower for a succession of
years.

The Hot-bed. — A hot-bed may be made of any material that will ferment,
so as to produce heat. Stable manure and dead leaves are, however, gener-
ally preferred to all other materials, and stable manure is unquestionably
the best. A cart-load of this manure wil] make a hot-bed sufficiently large
for rearing tender annuals ; and when it is taken out of the stable, it consists
partly of the dung of the horse, and partly of what is called long litter, —
that is, straw moistened and discolored, but not decayed. When in this
state, if it is thrown together so as to form a heap, a most violent heat is
produced by the fermentation of the straw while decomposing, and, as this
heat would be too powerful for any plant exposed to it, it is necessary to
let the heap remain for a fortnight or so, turning it over two or three times,
during that period, with a fork, till the straw is sufficiently decomposed to be
easily torn to pieces with the dung-fork. When the manure is in this state,
it is fit tc be used. The hot-bed should be formed in an open situation, on
a surface raised about six inches from the surrounding ground, with a gutter
or shallow ditch cut around it, to allow the water to drain off. The bed

480 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

is then made, and, if only intended for raising annuals and striking cuttings,
it may be five feet long by four feet wide. ‘The manure should be regularly
spread over the lower part of the bed, and in successive layers, made as
smooth and level as possible, till the whole of the cart-load of manure has
been used.

As soon as the bed is finished the frame should be set on it. The frame
consists of a box without a bottom, and with a movable top, formed of a
glazed sash or sashes. A frame for such a bed as has been mentioned will _
only require one sash or light ; and it should be three feet wide and four —
feet long, so that the bed may be half a foot larger than the frame on every
side. ‘The back of the box may be two feet high, and the front one foot, so
that the glass may slope from the back to the front. About two days after
the bed is made, the fermentation will recommence, and a steam will be
observable on the glass. The surface of the bed should now be covered, two
or three inches thick, with light garden mould, and any common seeds may
be sown in this. It is more general, however, to sow the seeds in pots, and
then either to set them on the surface of the bed, or to plunge them into it
up to the rim. No bed for raising annuals should ever be hotter than 60° ;
and when it exceeds this heat, the glasses should be left open so as to cool
it. The thermometer for ascertaining the heat should be put on the surface
of the bed, with the glass shut above it ; and it should be examined in this
situation, as it will fall a degree or two immediately on being taken into the
open air, if the weather should be very cold.

A hot-bed of two or three lights will require two or three cart-loads of
manure, and will, of course, produce a great deal of heat, from the immense
mass of fermenting materials it contains; and, unless properly regulated,
the plants will turn black, and the leaves be shriveled up, or, as the —
gardeners term it, burnt, from the too great heat of the bed. There is also
danger of a hot-bed getting too cold, instead of being too hot ; and, when this
is the case, the heat should be renewed by the application of dung-linings,
that is, a quantity of fresh stable manure around the outside of the bed.
Linings are sometimes made of dead leaves piled up around the outside of
the bed ; but, if the hot-beds are to be used only for raising seeds, they will
not want any linings, as it will be advantageous for the young seedlings if
the beds are allowed gradually to become cool as the plants increase in size,
so that they may acquire strength and hardiness before they are turned into —
the open ground. 5

Green-house Plants. — A few words on the green-house plants that will
be wanted for planting in the open ground in the flower-garden may not be 7
amiss. Petunias may be all raised from seeds with the other half-hardy
annuals, as seedling plants both grow and flower much more vigorously ¥

a ee eee a

See eS erate econ ee ee ee se ee

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 481

when planted out into the open ground, than plants that have been raised
from layers or cuttings. Celsia or Alonsoa urticifolia may also be raised
from seeds, as may Thunbergia alata, and its white variety. Phlox Drum-
mondi is almost always raised in this manner, as are the beautiful climbing
plants, Lophospermum scandens and its varieties, Maurandya Barclayana,
‘obea scandens, Eccremocarpus or Calampelis scabra, Rhodochiton volubile,
tne beautiful canary-bird flower (Trope@olum peregrinum), the most splendid
of the ipomeas, and several other well-known plants.

Geraniums, or pelargoniums, as they are called, being half-shrubby plants,
require to be raised by cuttings. These are generally taken off the points
of the shoots in autumn, and, a good many being put into one pot, they are
plunged into the hot-bed till they have struck root, and then gradually hard-
ened and placed on the back shelf of a green-house, or in a cold frame, till
the spring, when they are removed to separate pots till they are wanted for
planting out. Some gardeners do not put themselves to the trouble of pot-
ting them, but keep them in the same pots in which the cuttings were struck
till they are wanted for planting out; but this is an indifferent mode of cul-
ture, as, when the plants are kept so long in one pot, they become drawn
up, and do not have the compact, bushy appearance that they have when
properly transplanted early in spring. Verbenas may be either preserved
by cuttings or layers, or raised afresh from seed. The usual way of propa-
gating them, however, is by layers, as they strike root readily at the joints,
if the joints are covered with a little earth. All the other green-house
plants which are wanted to grow for planting out may be treated in the
same manner as those which have been mentioned.

Cold Frame. — This is a bottomless box of the kind described for a hot-
bed, but formed of brick or stone, instead of wood. ‘These frames have a
glass sash at the top, but contain no manure ; and they are generally sunk in
the soil, that the warmth of the soil around may aid in protecting the plants
they contain from the frost. ‘These frames, if they have only one light,
are generally five feet in width, that is, from the back to the front ; but, if
they have two or three lights, the width is generally seven feet, as these
are the dimensions of the frames used for hot-beds in kitchen-gardens. The
green-house plants that are to be preserved in the cold frame are merely set
in their pots close together, and, the glass sashes being then closed. mats
and other coverings are laid on to keep out the frost.

Sometimes green-house plants which are left in the open ground are
preserved from the frost by coverings of wicker-work, like bee-hives, being
put over them, or tin hoops over which mats have been stretched ; or, where
the plants are small, a fluwer-pot may be turned over them, or a hand-glass
aseqd foy the same purpose. It is seldom, however, worth while to take

41 2F

482 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

much pains to preserve green-house plants that have flowered in the open
air. The ordinary way is to make abundance of cuttings in autumn ; to
strike them in a hot-bed, and then, after hardening them by degrees, to pre-
serve them in a small green-house, or in a cold pit, till the time for planting
out next year.

Winter Management. — Many persons injure green-house plants by keep-
ing them too warm and giving them too little air during winter, and then
are surprised that their plants become sickly and remain without flowering,
notwithstanding all the care and expense that have been bestowed upon
them. No green-house ouglit to be kept at a greater heat, during night,
than froin 35° to 40°; and in the day-time it should not be allowed to rise
above 50°, or at most 52°. When there happens to be sunshine, the fire
ought to be lessened ; and whenever the air is not frosty, the windows ought
to be open from twelve till two every day. If a green-house is kept too
warm, it will induce premature vegetation, and the plant will waste its
strength in an attempt to produce flowers and fruit at a season when nature
requires it to be kept in a state of complete repose. Green-house plants
should be watered generally every morning ; but in frosty weather water
need not be given every day, and some plants will not require watering
oftener than once a week. ‘This, however, must depend in a great measure
on circumstances ; and, as a general rule, it may be observed that water
may always be given in small quantities when the surface of the earth con-
tained in the pot looks dry. The pots should not be allowed to stand in
saucers, as stagnant water is peculiarly injurious in winter. Whenever the
earth in the pot looks black and sodden, the plant should be turned out of
the pot; and, after the black earth has been carefully shaken from the roots,
it should be repotted in fresh soil, an inch or more in the bottom of the pot
being filled in with small pieces of broken china and earthen ware.

In February or March the plants should be looked over, and repotted
where necessary ; those that are too tall should be cut in, and cuttings made
of their shoots. The young plants, raised from cuttings made in autumn,
should be repotted in larger pots for flowering ; and where the plants do not
require fresh potting, but have the surface of tieir mould become green and
mossy, the moss should be taken off, and the ground slightly stirred with a
flat stick, taking care, however, not to go so deep as to injure the roots.
When trouble is not an object, all green-house plants are the better for
repotting every year, either in spring or autumn; and when the ball is
taken out of the pot for this purpose, it should be carefully examined, and
all the decayed parts of the roots should be cut off. Sometimes, when the
ball of earth is turned out, nearly half of it will fall off almost without touch-
ing it; and when this is the case, it will generally be found that there is @

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 483

worm in the pot. Worms do a great deal of mischief to green-house plants
in cutting through the roots, as their instinct teaches them to make their
way through the earth straight across the pot and back again, and they can-
not do this without tearing the roots asunder every time they pass.

Another point to be attended to in the management of a green-house is,
keeping the plants as near as possible to the glass, as, unless this be done,
the plants will become what gardeners call ‘‘ drawn up,’’ and unnaturally
tall and slender, from the efforts they make to reach the light.

Repotting. — As this process has been frequently mentioned, we here give
the best mode of performing the operation. “The pot to which the plant is
to be removed should always have been previously washed quite clean, and
be perfectly dry. Some bits of broken earthen pots should then be put at
the bottom of the pot, the quantity varying from three to four pieces, so as
just to cover the hole, to a mass an inch in depth, depending upon the nature
of the plant. If the plant has not been in a pot before, the roots are then
placed just above the broken bits just mentioned, and the earth is filled in,
the plant being occasionally shaken, so as to allow the earth to get amongst
its roots. The soil in the pots is next consolidated, by shaking it, and then

_ lifting it up and setting it down again with a jerk; the soil being rendered

firm and neat around the rim of the pot by means of a broad, smooth piece
of stick, shaped somewhat like a table-knife, and called a potting-stick.
When a plant has been in a pot before, and is repotted, or shifted, as it is
called, into a pot a size larger, the plant is turned out of its old pot by put-
ting the hand upon the earth and turning the pot upside down; or, if the
ball of earth does not come out readily, striking the rim of the pot against
the edge of the potting-table or shelf. The ball containing the plant will
thus drop out into the left hand ; and the bits of earthen ware that adhere
to the bottom of the ball having been picked off, and any part of the root
that appears decayed having been removed, a little mould is put on the
drainage in the new pot; and the ball of earth containing the plant having
been placed in the centre, the space between it and the pot is filled in with
light, rich mould, and made firm with the potting-stick. The operation is
concluded by shaking the pot, and then taking hold of the rim with both
hands, and striking the bottom of the pot two or three times, with a jerk,
against the potting-bench. The plant is then watered, and set in the shade
for the remainder of the day.

Heaths are very difficult plants to manage, but a great improvement has
taken place in their culture within the last few years. ‘They are grown in
a sort of mould, formed by a mixture of peat and sand ; and when this earth
is put into the pot, it is mixed with good-sized pebbles, some of which are
suffered to protrude through the surface of the soil. The roots of heath are

484 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

extremely fine and hair-like, and the shelter afforded by the pebbles is so
congenial to them, that, if one of the stones be taken out, a cluster of fine,
white, vigorous roots will be found below it. The plants are always potted
high, so as to let the base of the stem be above the level of the rim of the
pot, as the plants are very apt to damp off, if the collar of the plant be buried
in the ground. Heaths should never be suffered to become too dry, and
never keep too wet. They require little heat; many varieties of oid
favorites now appear double and triple leaved, with an infinity of dif-
ferent colors. Foliage plants have been introduced of late years, and
by their differently colored and bright leaves are made to contribute
much to the beauty of lawn gardening. All the leading florists furnish
catalogues descriptive of the appearance and mode of raising these
beautiful plants.

Garden Decorations. —'The decorations usual in flower-gardens are intro-
duced either with a view to utility, to convenience, or simply by way of
pleasing ornaments; which, !f managed with taste and skill, may be brought
into according harmony or pleasing contrast with the natural beauties of the
flowers, or with the artificial arrangement of their forms and colors. We
will specify a few of these different ornamental designs, in order to add to
the interest of our remarks in this department. First come arbors, which
may be either purely natural, partly natural and partly artificial, or entirely

——-—

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the result of art. Of the first are those formed by the banyan-fig, in tropi-
eal climes, whose lateral and widely extended branches send down numert-

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 485

ous shoots, which fix themselves in the ground. Such are those formed by
our various weeping varieties of forest trees, — the weeping-ash, birch,
beech, elm, willow, and the like. These trees, with their lithe and tenuous
branches, waving with every breeze, are the most natural, and perhaps the
- most delightful, of arbors. ‘To the second kind belong all those which are
formed by the hand of man, aided by some natural suitability of circum-
stances, or accidental advantages. ‘Thus an aged forest tree may have some
appropriate climbing plant placed at its roots, so as to run through its
branches and foliage, and ultimately descend gracefully from the extremi-
ties, until it nearly touches the ground. The construction of the third kind
of arbor depends much on the chances of situation ; and many designs, or
minute instructions, would be, therefore, superfluous, as they must be famil-
jar, in their various forms, to almost every reader. The following figure
represents a pretty design for an arbor of permanent construction.

Fig. 274.

Garden Seats add much to the beauty and attractiveness of a flower-garden.
These may be placed either in arbors or under some embowering shade, or

Fig. 275.

41*

486 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

in the open garden; and may be composed of hazel-rods, or straight, small
branches of any other tough wood. Five or more young trees, of the moun-
tain-ash, the oak, or spruce fir, bound together, form good rustic columns,
around which climbing roses may be trained, and the whole covered in with
a light roof, with rampant ivy, clematis, or jasmine, as in Fig. 275. For
occasional convenience, the various forms of the Turkish tent may be adopted ;
and when pitched on a lawn, amongst clumps of flowers in the modern style,

Fig. 276.

has a very agreeable effect. Besides arbors and garden-seats, vases may
be introduced with good effect ; also, fountains, flower-stands, aviaries, and
sun-dials, in all the different styles of workmanship. ‘The latter, when set
in an unshaded part of the garden, and mounted on a column, around which

——— —_

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 487

some flowering plant has been trained to climb, will form a very pleasing
object. We give a cut of one of these.

DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS.

Althea Frutexr.— This is a beautiful shrub, requiring a warm and shel-
tered situation in the Northern States. Sow the seeds in spring, and
protect the young plants during the winter.

Almond (Double Flowering).— A shrubby plant, bearing beautiful rose-
like flowers in the spring. It is propagated by suckers.

Amaranthus Tricolor. — An annual plant, with a beautifully variegated
foliage of red, green, and yellow. The seed is found in little tufts about
the stalk, and may be sown in April or May.

Animated Oats. — An annual plant, and resembles the common oats while
growing. ‘The seeds are clothed with a stiff down, and have appendages
like the legs of some insect, with apparent joints. They are affected by the
changes of the weather, and, of course, are continually moving. If they
be wet, they will turn over several times, and twist about. If wet, and
held to a lighted lamp, they exhibit such motions of apparent agony as an
insect would, placed in a like situation.

Aster, China. — An annual, producing many splendid flowers. ‘There
are several varieties, as red, white, purple, yellow, striped, quilled, &c.
The seed should be sown early in the spuuy. It flowers late, but is
destroyed by severe frost.

Auricula.— There are several species. It may be raised from seed, but
like does not produce like, in all cases. They are best raised by dividing
the roo.s, which send out several voung plants annually. They are tender,
una, 11 planted in open ground, they must be well covered, and be kept
from severe frost and rain during the winter. They are well adapted for
pots, to flower in the house. .

Azalea Nudiflora.-—It is commonly known as the American Honeysuckle,

488 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

and includes several species. It bears abundantly, the flowers having a fine
perfume and making a very handsome show.

Box.— A low, delicate shrub, which may be pruned to any shape to
please the fancy. It is an evergreen, hardy, and suitable for borders. It is
grown by cuttings, or by dividing the roots. If a plant be placed deep in
the earth, and the soil be brought in close contact with the small branches
(being spread as much as possible), they will send out roots, and furnish a
large number of smal] plants. In trimming this shrub, let the operation be
done well, using the proper utensils.

Fig. 278.

Brier, Sweet. — A well-known rose-bush, hardy, adapting itself to a poor
soil. The foliage and flowers are bright, and delightfully fragrant.

Canterbury Bell. — A biennial plant, bearing large blue flowers, which
are much admired, and make a fine appearance.

Carnation. — A biennial and perennial, comprising several superb va-
rieties. May be grown by layers. While it is in flower, it sends out
several side shoots near the root; these are pinned down in August, a little
under the earth, leaving the extreme part erect; in a little time they take
root, and the new plant must be severed from the old, and transplanted.
The old plant does not always stand another winter; therefore its branches
are used to continue the species. Carnations are rather tender as to frost,
and must be covered, in the Northern States, to live through the winter.
It is best to put them into large pots, and keep them in a green-house or
parlor, or in some place where they can have air and light during winter.

Cassia Marylandica.— This is a perennial plant, producing many small
yellow flowers, suitable only to stand in a border. It is hardy, and is
propagated by seed.

AR ook

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 489

Catalpa.— A beautiful tree, raised by seed. Much admired for its
foliage and showy flowers, which are very ornamental in the garden.

Cherry, Double-flowering. —'This is one of the most beautiful trees in
the flower-garden or shrubbery ; cultivated the same as the common cherry-
tree.

Chrysanthemum Indicum.— A fine perennial plant, hardy, flowering
brilliantly late in the autumn, and comprising several varieties. The plants
may remain in the open ground until late in the fall, and then be taken up
and placed in pots. When the frosts appear, keep them in a warm room
until after flowering, and then put the roots in the cellar or open ground.
They will flower in the garden, if carefully attended to. Raise by dividing
the roots.

Clematis, Austrian. — A perennial plant, producing very pretty flowers.
It is best propagated by dividing the roots.

Clethra. — A well-known plant, bearing clusters of fragrant flowers in
the fall.

Columbine. — A very common perennial, including different species;
very neat.

Convolvulus. — Many species — annual. Convolvulus major is commonly
called Morning Glory. It is a vine, and a great runner — many colors.
Convolvulus minor, called Beauty of the Night, because it blossoms at
evening — many colors. ‘Sow the seed early in the spring.

Corchorus Japonicus.— A shrub frequently cultivated in green-houses,
but may be grown in the garden. It bears wreaths of golden-yellow
flowers.

Crocus. — A bulbous-rooted plant, hardy, early ; colors, blue, yellow,
white, purple, &c. It is grown by the bulbs. A pretty pot-flower.

Cupid’s Car, or Monk’s Hood. — A fine, vigorous annual, bearing a
profusion of pretty blue flowers, during the summer and fall. Propagated
by a division of the roots. A very neat plant for the flower-garden.

Dahlia. — A beautiful Mexican flower, embracing many varieties of color
and shade. A somewhat sandy or gravelly soil is thought best, in order
to prevent their growing too luxuriant, and to obtain more flowers. They
may be raised by seed, or by a division of the roots. Sow the seed in
March, in pots, and place in a hot-bed or green-house. About the middle
of May, or when there is no danger from frost, plant them out in the
borders, or wherever they are to stand; and as they increase in height, let
them be well supported by stakes, to prevent the wind breaking them down.
The roots are tuberous, resembling a sweet potato, and should be taken up
in October or November, and preserved through the winter in a box filled

490 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

with dry sand, placed out of reach of the frost. Plant only those which
have a bud, and divide the roots carefully.

Daisy, — A small, delicate, perennial plant, producing small but attract-
ive flowers. It is hardy, and will bear flowers through the winter, if kept
in pots or boxes, in the house. Raised by offsets.

Dwarf Basil. — A very fragrant annual, raised from the seeds.

Eupatorium (Blue).— Perennial; bearing a profusion of beautiful flow-
ers, and propagated most readily by dividing the roots.

Euphoria Lathyris.— This is a biennial plant, commonly known as the
Caper-tree. It is singular in its foliage. Rather tender. Propagated by
seed.

Fading Beauty, or Morning Bride.— An annual plant, producing hand-
some flowers, which last but a few hours, or less. Plant the seed in spring.

Foxglove.— A handsome flowering biennial and perennial plant, com-
prising several varieties. Sow the seed in spring, covering lightly with
earth.

Fringe Tree. — A handsome shrub, covered with white flowers. Hardy,
and will grow in any soil, but flourishes best in moist ground.

Geranium. — There are many varieties of this much-admired plant.
Some give flowers, with little or no leaf; others possess beauty of leaf, as
well as of flowers: some give no perfume; others are delightfully fragrant.
It is easily propagated by cuttings from any part of the plant, old wood or
young, and placed in pots. In a green-house, or parlor, they will bloom in
winter.

Garden Angelica. — Perennial ; bold and showy when in flower. Raised
from the seed, and well adapted for some situations in the garden.

Glycine. — A perennial vine, bearing variegated flowers. It will grow
on the side of a house or wall to a great extent, making a fue appearance.
It is propagated both from seed and layers.

Golden Coreopsis. — This is an annual, bearing a profusion of rich, bril-
liant yellow flowers, having a purple centre. It is easily raised from the
seed.

Golden Everlasting. — A somewhat peculiar plant, bearing a late, bright
yellow flower, which, if taken off before the seed ripens, will retain its
brightness for many years. Plant the seed early in the spring.

Hollyhock. — A hardy, perennial plant — showy for a shrubbery. There
are several varieties, — the single, double, white, red, yellow, dark, &c.

Honeysuckle. — This plant is very beautiful in its place: it climbs up
houses, and over hedges; it forms arbors and bowers ; it blooms in clusters.
‘There are several varieties. ‘The Jtalian produces an abundance of change-
able flowers early in the season, diffusing a rich fragrance all arqund. The

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 49]

Variegated blooms monthly, and is very fragrant. The Scarlet Trumpet
also blooms monthly, — scarlet flowers, making a handsome appearance. It
may be grown by seeds and cuttings, but best by layers.

Hyacinth.— A. bulbous-rooted plant, and, like all other plants of this
class, is perennial. It is an early, beautiful, and fragrant flower. It will
bloom in glasses filled with water, in a room, but better in pots of earth.
It is best propagated by offsets. While the parent root is blowing, it
sends out several young ones. ‘They should be planted at a depth of four
inches. ‘There are many varieties of this admired flower, both single and
double ; the former have the brightest colors, but the latter are generally
preferred.

Hydrangea. — This is a small shrub, producing large and changeable
flowers, being at first green, then becoming gradually rose-colored, and after-
wards green, occupying about six months. It is a house-plant — will bear
some frost, but should be kept, during the winter, in a green-house, parlor,
or a cellar where there is some light. Propagate by cuttings.

Ice Plant.— A well-known annual, having a peculiar icy appearance.
Plant the seeds in pots, in the spring.

Impatiens Balsamina.— Commonly known as Balsamine. A very fine
annual plant, bearing a profusion of gaudy flowers. ‘There are several
varieties, — single and double, rose-colored, red, white, crimson, purple,
and variegated. It commences flowering in July, and continues till cold
weather. Sow the seed in May.

Tris, or Flower-de-lis.— A hardy, perennial plant, comprising many
varieties, both large and small; a favorite plant, raised by dividing the
roots.

Lagentrenia Indica. — A flowering shrub, which endures the winter of
the Middle and Southern States, but requires attention further North.

Laburnum. — A tall and handsome shrub, loaded, when in bloom, with
yellow flowers. Sometimes called Golden Chain. It is raised from seed,
and requires a warm and sheltered situation.

Larkspur. — An annual plant, of no fragrance, but of great variety of
colors. It makes a pretty appearance, and is raised from the seed.

Laurel (Broad-leaved).— This is an evergreen shrub, bearing flowers of
great delicacy and beauty, being white, tinged with red.

Lilac.— A large, shrubby tree, hardy, and handsome when in bloom,
having large bunches of fragrant flowers. The white and the purple may
pe easily grafted or inoculated into each other, and when the shrub, with
a handsome head, is thus managed, some branches producing purple and
others white flowers, the show'is very fine. It is raised from suckers, of
which it sends out a great many, but from which it should be freed as much

492 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

as possible. The Persian lilac is a neater shrub, bearing delicate white
flowers. It is propagated by suckers.

Lily. — There are many varieties of this plant. The White grows three
or four feet high, and bears large, white, sweet-smelling flowers. The
Tiger grows one or two feet higher, producing gaudy spotted flowers. The
Martagon is similar to the latter, but more delicate: all these are bulbous-
rooted, and are best propagated from offsets. ‘The Asphodel grows to the
height of two feet, and bears handsome yellow flowers ; it is propagated by
seed or offsets. ‘The Lily of the Valley is a small dwarf plant, that thrives
best in the shade, producing small, delicate flowers, of a sweet odor.
Raised by offsets.

Lime Plant. — A singular plant, the stem, foliage, flower, and fruit,
being formed in the earth, and, after the plant has come up, there is
nothing more than the extension of parts. The stems, when from eight to
twelve inches high, branch out in two arms, at the extremity of each of
which is a large palmated leaf. In the fork proceeds the fruit-stem. The
first that is seen in the spring is a delicate membraneous cap, which is soon
burst open by the flower-bud, which is large, round, and white. Next
appear the shoulders and arms, lying close to the stem or trunk ; and as the
plant rises, the fruit-stem elongates and the arms elevate themselves. The
fruit is about the size of a large lime, — green while growing, and yellow
when ripe. A moist soil, in a shady situation, is best. Propagate by seed,
or by dividing the roots, which are creeping and jointed.

Lobelia,—A very interesting genus of flowering plants, alike pleasing
to the eye, and useful to the pharmaceutist. ‘The green-house, hot-house,
shrubby, and herbaceous kinds, grow well in a mixture of peat and sand;
the shrubby kinds being readily increased by cuttings, and the herba-
ceous species by division as well as by seeds. The hardy, herbaceous
varieties flourish in a light, rich earth; but in the cold weather of the
winter season, most of them require the protection of a frame. The
green-house annuals and biennials must be sown in pots; but those of
the hardier plants may be sown in the open border. The L. longiflora is
a very venomous plant, fatal results following its use.

Lungwort is the common name of a species of remarkably-pretty flower-
ing plants, well adapted for ornamenting the fronts of shrubberies. They
are easily increased by divisions, and will thrive in any ordinary soils.
Their generic name is Pulmonaria.

Lychnadia.—A perennial plant, comprising several varieties: purple,
white, /striped, &c. The plant is hardy, bears an abundance of delicate

0 le ee

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 493

fl,wers, and continues long in bloom. It is best propagated by dividing
the roots.

Magnolia.—A very elegant and showy plant when in flower, and one
which deserves extensive cultivation. Being a remarkably handsome
shrub, it should be planted in a conspicuous situation, where it will bear
a profusion of flowers when it attains a good size.

Mezereon.—This is a small and beautiful shrub, blooming in the month
of March, with a profusion of fragrant flowers. Hardy; raised by seed.

Mignonette (R. odorata), an old and universal favorite, emits a very
pleasant odor from its flowers. It is usually an annual, but, by green-
house cultivation and constant pruning, it may be rendered perennial,
and even shrubby.

Musk Geranium.—An annual plant, having a strong musky odor. It
will stand the winter in a common hot-bed. Plant the seed early.

Myrtle (Evergreen).—An evergreen vine, including several species bear-
ing a pretty blue flower. A favorite plant for ornamental purposes.

Narcissus.—A bulbous-rooted plant, managed like the hyacinth. It
bears an early, beautiful, and fragrant flower. It is hardy, and well

adapted to bloom in a pot in the green-house or parlor. Raised by bul-
bous offsets, which increase every year. Polyanthus Narcissus and Jon-
quils, both elegant flowering plants, are propagated and cultivated in the
same manner.

Nasturtium.—An annual plant, with showy flowers. The seeds are
enveloped in fleshy pods, and should be sown very early in spring. The
plants should be supported frém the ground by bushy sticks.

494 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Oleander.—A noble-looking, evergreen shrub, easily cultivated, and
flowering freely during the greater part of the year. It grows well in
a rich, light soil—and young cuttings root in any soil, if kept moist.

Passion Flower.—This is a beautiful and celebrated flower, growing on
a perennial vine; the name originating from the large cross in the middle

of the flower, surrounded by appendages resembling a glory. The plant
has a succession of flowers for a long time. It is tender, suitable for the
green-house, but will not endure a northern winter in open ground. It
is best raised from cuttings.

Peeony.—A perennial plant, bearing a gorgeous but short-lived flower.
There are several species. Propagate from offsets.

Pea (Sweet).—There are many species of this annual, varying in color
and scent. The Hverlasting Pea is perennial, and produces many clusters
of showy flowers, which remain in bloom a long time. Plant the seed
early in spring.

Peach (Double Flowering).—A very showy tree, bearing flowers of the
size of a small rose. It is hardy, and managed like other peach trees.

Pink.—A well-known perennial plant, fragrant, and embracing many
varieties as respects size and color. A fine flower, and easily grown by
seeds, layers, &e.

Polyanthus. — A hardy, perennial plant, bearing handsome flowers.
There are many varieties, and the plant blooms best in a shady situation ;
best propagated by dividing the roots. Polyanthus Narcissus is a very
pretty perennial, bulbous-rcoted, and easily grown by offsets.

Primroses.—A numerous family of small, but very pretty and desirable
plants. The principal species are: Zhe Common Primrose, which bears
numerous, large, sulphur-colored flowers, with a darker radiating spot in

a ee eS oe

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 495

the centre. Scent slight, but agreeable. There are varieties of this spe-
cies which produce both single and double flowers, of white, brown, and
purple colors. The Bird’s-Eye Primrose, which bears beautiful rose-
colored flowers, fringed with a notched, yellow, glandular border.

Pyrenium Parthenium (commonly called Double Feverfew).— A hardy
perennial, producing large quantities of white flowers, and continuing in
bloom a long time. It is easily propagated by the seed.

Poppy.—An annual plant, admired for its great variety in size and in
flower. The double are very showy, but of short duration. Easily grown
by seed.

Purple Hyacinth Bean.—An annual runner, bearing large clusters of
purple flowers, much admired. Plant the seeds early, and preserve from
frost.

Rhynchospermum jasminoides is a beautiful climbing-plant, of Chinese
origin, peculiarly adapted to green-house cultivation in the United States.
The flower very much resembles that of the jasmine, and exhales a deli-
cious odor. It is an evergreen, and sends out rootlets along the stem
when brought in contact with the ground, rendering it of easy propaga-
tion by cuttings, It commences flowering in April in the green-house,
and continues to bloom for six weeks or two months.

Rose.—Of this deservedly-popular flower there are many varieties, as to
size, foliage, beauty, and fragrance. They may be propagated from seed
or by suckers — the latter being the most certain and easy mode. The

suckers should be those which come out near the old stems, during the
summer, and, when planted, should be cut down to four or five inches from
the ground. Plant in October, November, or April. Keep the ground good,
and dig it every autumn. They should, except when trained against a

496 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

wall, be cut down to a certain height, according to their natural size; for
when the stems and limbs are long, they produce fewer flowers. All the
weak, dead or dying wood should be pruned out close, without leaving any
ugly stubs. The Yellow Rose requires an airy situation and a gravelly soil,
and every autumn one half of the old wood should be cut down within four
inches of the ground ; by this means a succession of thrifty, blooming shoots
will be kept up. ‘The Chinese Monthly Rose is grown by cuttings, taken in
the spring and properly placed in moist earth. It is a tender plant, and
should be taken into a green-house or parlor during the winter. Some of
thein, however, are hardy, and withstand the frost. When gathering roses

Fig. 283,

and other flowers having thorny stems, a pair of scissors, combining tweezers
or pincers (Fig. 288), are very useful.

Rose Acacia. —'Vhis is a singular shrub, producing many clusters of
flowers, much admired. Propagated by shoots from the roots.

Rose-colored Hibiscus. — A perennial plant, producing very showy flowers,
and making a good appearance in a border. Raised by seed.

Rudbeckia. — A perennial plant, producing many flowers, which are very
durable, and much admired. Propagated best by dividing the roots.

Scarlet Cacalia. — A small annual plant, producing numerous scarlet
flowers. very showy. Lasily raised from the seed.

Scarlet Lychnis. — A perennial plant of two kinds, the single and the
double, the latter being very handsome. ‘The former is propagated from
seed, and the latter by dividing the roots.

Snowberry. — A small shrub, producing clusters of beautiful white, wax-
like berries, in autumn. Propagated best by suckers.

Spiderwort.— A singular perennial plant, in bloom for a long time. The
blue is more admired than the white. It requires a light covering during
the severity of winter weather. Propagated by dividing the roots.

Spirea. — A small shrub, loaded with delicate flowers in the season of its
blooming. Propagated by suckers.

Syringa, cr Mock Orange. — A shrub, bearing flowers quite similar to
those of the orange, and making a very pleasing appearance when growing
with other shrubbery. Propagated by suckers.

Strawberry Tree. — This is a handsome shrub, bearing, in autumn, an

» 4senee.
a a. = ro

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 497

abundance of fruit, somewhat resembling the strawberry. ‘The European
is preferred to the American. Grown by seed and by suckers.

Sweet Bay.— This is a very pretty evergreen shrub, well calculated to
stand, in a large pot, in the parlor, during winter. It is propagated very
easily, by suckers.

Sweet Wailliam.— An imperfect perennial, producing very beautiful
flowers of small size. It is grown by seed, the plants of which do not pro-
duce flowers like those of the parent plant, except by chance. It may be
propagated by dividing the roots.

Tulip. —In no family of plants has nature so multiplied her beautiful
tints as in this, — there being several hundred varieties. It may be raised
from seed, but the plants do not produce flowers like those of the parent
plant, except by chance. They are raised best by bulbs. After flowering,
the foliage and roots decay, and a bulb or bulbs are formed of the juices of
the old plant. A bulb contains all the parts of the future plant, and soon
becomes as much disengaged from the decayed plant as the ripe acorn is
disengaged from its parent tree. At this time they may be carried, like
many other bulbs, any length of distance, in dry moss or dry sand. They
should be planted out, about three inches below the surface, in a rich soil,
in August or September ; after which, they throw out roots, and prepare for
an early appearance in the ensuing spring. If the bulbs be kept through
the winter and planted in the spring, they will not thrive so well that season.
The nicer varieties should be taken up after the decay of the old plants,
every year, air-dried, and kept until September or October, and then
planted.

“olet. — This little plant is perennial ; the flowers blue, double, and fra-
grant, blooming early and long Propagate by dividing the roots.

H. SHRUBS.

Soz]. — With respect to soil, hardy shrubs may be conveniently consid-
‘ered as constituting two great divisions ; one requiring any common garden
soil, and the other requiring a large portion of peat or leaf-mould.

With regard to the first division, a rich, light, hazel loam is suitable to
the greater number of the plants, though some will inrive in the poorest
soils; but in this there is great diversity. After having taken out the
vriginal soil of the border, about a foot anda half or two feet deep, —
though three feet will do no harm, — fill in the vacancy thus formed with
peat or compost raised above the garden level, to allow for subsequent
sinking.

Seasons and Modes of Planting. — With respect to shrubs that shed their
leaves on the approach of winter, they may be removed with safety as soon

42% 2a

498 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

as the leaves have begun to fall in October. With respect to shrubs which
do not shed their leaves and are evergreen, they may, if carefully taken up,
be planted at any season of the year, provided advantage is taken of dull or
dripping weather. But, notwithstanding, there are particular seasons when
they will thrive better and grow more freely than at others.

If the situation be dry, and the soil light and sandy, evergreens, with
the exception of hollies, should be planted as late in November as the
weather will permit. But in the case of a bad situation, with a soil reten-
tive of moisture, May is the preferable season. Hollies should always be
removed in June.

When the plants are large or rather old, good balls should, if possible, be
taken up with them, and all the fibres of the roots that can be got up with-
out bruising or injury. Whatever may be the state of the weather, it is
important to keep the roots as short time exposed to the air as possible. If
only a few minutes, so much the better. In all seasons, situations, and
soils, the plants should be well soaked with water as soon as the earth
is put about the roots. As soon as a plant has been put into its place, the
earth should be filled in, leaving a sufficient hollow around the stem, and as
far as the roots extend, to hold water, which should then be poured in, in
sufficient quantity to soak the ground down to the lowest parts of the root.
By this practice, which is particularly necessary in spring and autumn
planting, the earth is carried down by the water, and every crevice among
the roots is filled. Care must always be taken to have as much earth about
the roots of the plants as will prevent them from being exposed when the

Fig. 284.

water has subsided. . After the first watering has dried up, the earth should
be leveled around the stem of the plant, and as far out as the water has
been put on, but not trodden. If the plants are large, a second watering is
sometimes necessary, but in ordinary-sized plants one watering is quite suf-

i Se eh ASE: AE eae

*
ih
{

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 499

ficient; and after remaining twenty-four hours, more or less, according to
the nature of the soil, the earth about the stem and over the roots should be
trodden as firm as possible, and after treading should be dressed with a
rake. The garden engine is now much used, in watering gardens,
nurseries, &c. Fig. 284.

After-management. —If the season be very dry, it will be important to
Jay round the roots a quantity of moss, or cut grass. Whilst the plants are
small, care must be taken not to let them be stifled or choked with rank-
growing weeds, nor by the increasing growth of contiguous shrubs, and to

clear away all rubbish that might retard their shooting ; also stir the sur-

face of the ground frequently with a hoe, to prevent the surface becoming
hard and caked in dry weather. The branches must be trimmed off, too,
which may be done by means of the implement below, —called a briar or
bill hook, —as they grow too large or luxuriant, or overhang and smother
each other.

Fig. 285.

Situation and Arrangement. — Some shrubs thrive best in a dry and ele-
vated situation, and will not grow when crowded amongst others, or in low,
damp ground, where other sorts grow the most luxuriantly. These and
other circumstances must be attended to, in the disposal of the several roots.
The beauty of the plants cannot be displayed, indeed, when they are too
much crowded, as they are then certain to be drawn into unnatural shapes.
The more frequently, therefore, that open spaces can be omitted, the more

Fig. 286,

will the shrubs exhibit themselves to advantage. Keep them well trimmed,
using the pruning-shears (Fig. 286) freely, whenever necessary.

500 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

One of the most important things, in planting shrubs, is to attend partic-
ularly to the shades of green, especially where the view from the house or
lawn catches the trees. Flowers, which Pliny elegantly calls the joy of
trees, continue but for a short period in comparison with the duration of the
leaves, and, therefore, the more permanent picture should be executed by
judiciously contrasting the greens. Even the effect of perspective may be con-
siderably increased by the proper arrangement of hues. Shrubs, whose leaves
are of a gray or bluish tint, when seen over or between shrubs of a yellow-
ish or bright green, will seem thrown into the distance. Those, again, with
smal]! or tremulous leaves should wave over or before those with large,
broad-tixed foliage. The light and elegant acacia, for example, has a more
beautiful effect when its branches float over the firm and dark holly, or
sweet bay. When the situation will permit, three or five lilacs may be
grouped together in one place, and as many laburnums in another, so as to
give effect in various parts by a mass of color. The guelder rose should
appear as if escaping from the bosom of evergreens, and not a plant should
be set in the ground without adding to the harmony of the whole.

A shrubbery should be planted as a court or stage dress is ornamented —
for general effect, and not for particular and partial inspeetion. Boldness
of design, which seems to be more the offSpring of nature and chance than
of art and study, should be attempted ; but all harshness or too great abrupt-
ness must be avoided, by a judicious mixture of plants whose colors will
blend easily into one another. ‘The most beautiful shrubs should, of course,
be planted in the most conspicuous and prominent places ; a projecting part
of the shrubbery, for instance, should be reserved for the rhododendron, the
azalea, and other similar sorts, with which may be planted the hardier
heaths. With respect to evergreens considerable judgment is required, in
order to relieve their uniform appearance during winter. This may be done
by skilfully arranging different kinds, and those with variegated leaves, such
as aucuba, japonica, and green holly, or those which retain their brilliant
berries during the cold months, such as pyracantha.

A well-planted shrubbery depends not so much for its beauty on the ex-
pense or rarity of the plants it contains, as on the selection of the sorts
which succeed each other in blossoming throughout the year, or whose vari-
ous-colored fruits grace them for the longest duration of time. It is not,
accordingly, so much the shrubs, exclusively the ornament of the summer
months, which alone require attention, but such also as will contribute to
the gayety of the morning and evening of the year ; so that the gloom may
be banished at all times, as much as possible, from the grove, and nature’s
repose shortened between the plaintive good-night of autumn and the
cheerful good-morrow of spring. For this purpose, plant the hazel and

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 501

filbert, as among the trees which blossom first; and even the furz-bush is a
great enlivener of the shrubbery at this dull season, particularly when its
golden blossoms are expanded at the foot of some dark-foliaged evergreen.

Varieties. — Among the numerous kinds of ornamental shrubs may be
mentioned, for a select assortment, — Rose Acacia, dwarf white-flowering
Horse Chestnut, scarlet-flowering Chestnut, Strawberry tree, double-flow-
ering Almond, Snow-ball, Japan Sophora, Spice-bush, Rose of Sharon,
Lilac, Carolina Syringa, Spirea, Mountain Rose, Mountain Laurel, Azalea,
Calycanthus, Honeysuckle, Hawthorn, Prim, Juniper.

Ill. ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL TREES.

Varieties.—The most common, hardy, and esteemed ornamental trees
are the Abele, Ailanthus, Ash, Basswood, Elm, Horse Chesnut, Linden,
Locust, Rock Maple, Tulip Tree, and the different varieties of the Willow.

The best and most handsome evergreens are, the Cluster Box, Common
Box, Magnolia grandiflora, American Silver Fir, European Silver Fir,
Larch Pine, Scotch Pine, American White Spruce, Norway Spruce Fir,
Evergreen Cypress, and Hemlock.

Sucar Mapie.—With the exception of the oak and the pine, no tree
has obtained more celebrity than the sugar maple (Acer saccharinum).
Its neat appearance, and the beauty of its foliage —in summer of the
liveliest green, and in autumn assuming the richest and most glowing
red color—recommend it as a beautiful ornament for gardens, lanes, and
groves; and its culture is really a matter of some importance to the
farmer, who may readily perpetuate and extend it. Planted out around
the farm-house, along the lanes, and in the fence-corners, it serves the
double purpose of an ornamental shade-tree, and of a never-failing sugar

. producer. If this plan is not adopted, three or four acres could not be

devoted to a better use than as a sugar orchard. The trees may be planted
in rows ten feet apart each way, and the soil loosened around them ina
circle six feet in diameter, and to the depth of two feet. The rapid growth
of the transplanted trees will depend in a great measure on the care used
in their removal from the forest to their new location. If thrifty, they
will be ready for tapping in fifteen years; and, if they do not profit the
person who plants them, they will be a valuable legacy to his posterity.
Tapping the trees. —In ordinary seasons the best time for tapping the
trees is from the 15th of March to the 15th of April, when the weather is
mild during the day, but cold and frosty at night. The first thing neces-
sary is the preparation of spouts and buckets. The former are made of
soft maple or ash, turned in a lathe; and the latter are entirely composed
of the wood of the ash. Two spouts are made for each tree — one, in-

502 TFARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

tended for the lower orifice, is quite tapering, three inches in length, and
has a wire fixed upon the end, by which a bucket may be hung upon it;
the other is six inches long, and made in the usual manner. The buckets
have a capacity of three or four gallons, and are so suspended from the
short spout, that they can be emptied without removing them. These
preparations completed, the next step is to tap the trees, which is done
with a half-inch augur—the lowest orifice being made about twenty inches
from the ground, and the other three inches higher up. The holes at first
should not exceed three-fourths of an inch in depth, and they should have
a sufficient inclination to cause the sap to flow freely in freezing weather;
otherwise, it is liable to congeal in the mouth of the orifice. When the
flow of sap begins to slacken, the holes may be increased to the depth of
two und a half inches, for which a larger augur may be used, The spouts
should not enter the holes farther than half an inch, as the deeper they
are driven, the more will the sap be obstructed in its flow. The sap may
be collected daily from the trees, and put into large tubs, preparatory to
boiling down.

Boiling the Sap. — The sap should be boiled before fermentation com-
mences, which, as the weather becomes warm, will generally occur about
the second or third day; and the greater the extent of surface exposed to
the atmosphere while boiling, the more rapid will be the evaporation,
The best apparatus are large copper pans, six feet long, three feet wide,
and nine inches deep, fixed over a furnace made of brick-work. While
boiling, the scum should be skimmed off as rapidly as it rises, and as the
quantity of the liquid increases, fresh juice should be added. A tea-
spoonful of slaked lime should be added to every fifteen gallons of sap,
which causes the impurities to rise, and neutralize the gallic acid. To
prevent the sap from boiling over the sides of the pan, a piece of pork-fat
may be suspended in it, or the inner rim of the pan be rubbed with the
same substance. Charcoal is the best fuel to use, as, though a strong
heat is required, it should be an equable one, and be confined entirely to
the bottom of the pan. When the sap has been reduced to a syrup, it
should be strained either through a hair-sieve or a woollen cloth, and then
allowed to stand a few hours to settle ; after which, it may be drained off
carefully from the sediment which has settled at the bottom.

Clarifying.—After the syrup has been properly strained, it should be
returned to the pan, and the clarifying materials, such as milk, eggs, or
calves’ blood, added. The impurities combine with these substances, and
rise with them to the surface in the form of a thick scum, which should
be carefully skimmed off. When the syrup is sufficiently reduced, which
may be judged of by the manner in which it strings on being drawn out

oS he

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 503

between the finger and thumb, it should be removed from the fire, emp-
tied into large, shallow troughs, and stirred well for some time, until it
grains ; for if poured at once into moulds, it will take the form of candy,
and not that of sugar. When properly granulated, the sugar should be
put into conical moulds, or barrels with holes bored in the bottom, and
set aside, to drain off the molasses.

Claying.—In two or three days after the moulds or barrels are un-
stopped at the bottom, mix white clay with water until it takes the form
of a creamy paste, and with this cover the top of the sugar to the depth
of one and a half inches. When this covering dries, remove it, and
supply.its place with a fresh layer about two inches thick. The sugar is
thus reduced in quantity, but its quality is correspondingly improved,
and the amount of molasses greatly increased.

Molasses and Vinegar.—These are usually made from the last runnings,
the sap then containing a larger proportion of mucilage, and being less
adapted for making sugar. This molasses, when properly clarified, is
superior to that made from the sugar-cane, and possesses a peculiarly-
grateful flavor. The vinegar, however, though excellent for table use, is
not available for pickling purposes.

Evercrerns.—The value of evergreens for purposes of use and orna-
ment has not, until recently, been fully appreciated. In many bleak
situations, at least one-half the winter fuel may be saved by planting
from forty to sixty good evergreen trees across the sweep of the prevail-
ing winds, and they will also serve as a shelter to cattle during the winter,
breaking the force of the cutting winds to which the poor animals are
frequently exposed in the open fields. This may not be an object ina
thickly-settled country, where cattle are comfortably lodged under sheds,
or in barns ; but on the bleak Western prairies, not a tithe of the cattle
ever have the benefit of a shelter, and there these evergreen shelters
would prove both advantageous and economical. As an ornamental tree
they cannot be excelled, since they are always objects of beauty, and pro-
duce a fine picturesque effect in the landscape.

The Cluster Pine (Pinus Pinaster,) thrives well in a sandy soil, but re-
fuses to grow in calcareous land. It is indigenous to the south of Europe,
is a rapidly-growing tree, and very hardy.

The Box (Buxus sempervirens,) is a beautiful evergreen shrub, of which
there are several varieties, ranging from the dwarf size to that of a tree
twenty feet high. It is indigenous to Europe and Asia, of slow growth,
but attains a great age; and its small, coriaceous, bright green, shining
leaves, are very enduring. .

The Magnolia grandiflora (Fig. 287,) is a beautiful evergreen tree, in-

A04 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

digenous to the Southern States, which grows to a height of from forty to
sixty feet. It forms a rounded pyramidal head, well covered with large,

Fig. 287.

K SAWN \ Yili Hs A

'V IK iy
\\ A\ Sy

S SS

coriaceous, shining leaves, of great size and beauty, which form a pleasing
contrast with its white flowers, from which a most delicious perfume is
exhaled. It does not thrive north of latitude 35°, not being sufficiently
hardy to stand the climate.

The American Silver Fir (Picea balsamea,) is a pyramidal tree, seldom
growing more than thirty fect in height. It is very hardy, and, when
standing alone, furms a perfect pyramid.

The European Silver Fir (Picea pectinata,) (Fig. 288), found upon the
mountains of Central Europe, is remarkable for the regularity and sym-
metry of its form; the heads of these trees being always pyramidal. It
is of slow growth, but attains a height of 180 feet, with a straight stem,
and regularly-whorled branches, which stand out horizontally. The
upper side of the leaf is of a very dark shade of green, with silvery lines
beneath.

The Larch Pine (Pinus laricio), indigenous to the Island of Corsica, is
a rapid grower, and hardy as far north as Lat. 42°. It attains a height
of 150 feet, and bears leaves varying from four to eight inches in length,
according to the age of the tree.

The Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris,) succeeds remarkably well in the
United States. In favorable situations it grows to the height of 100 feet.
The leaves are glaucous, and in pairs. They do not drop from the tree
until the fifth year. It is very hardy.

The American White Spruce (Abies alba,) is a very hardy tree, some-
what resembling the Norway spruce, though it is neither so large, nor so
fine-looking.

a a a

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 50A

wos =

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nr =,

The Evergreen Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens,) (Fig. 289), a native
of the islands of the Archipelago, has been found to thrive well in the

506 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Southern States. It is a tapering, cone-like tree, with upright branches,
growing close to the trunk. The branchlets are dichotomous, and covered
closely withoverlappingscales or leaves, which are yellowish-green, shining,
and remain on the tree five or six years. It does not suit a northern
latitude.

Fig. 290.

The Norway Spruce Fir (Abies excelsa,) (Fig. 290,) is one of the loftiest
of European trees, frequently attaining a height of 180 feet. It is a beau-
tiful pyramidal tree, with a straight trunk, and pendulous branches and
twigs. It succeeds well in the United States, being able to withstand the
most severe winter, and forms an excellent shelter from the rude blasts.

The Hemlock Spruce Fir (Abies canadensis), one of the most beautiful
of American evergreens, is a tall, pyramidal tree, well furnished with
slender limbs, which decline gracefully, forming a cone of perennial dark
green, which forms a very refreshing relief in a landscape. It is very
hardy, and will grow almost anywhere.

_—S

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 507

Osters.—There are several varieties of this species of willow; but we
have only space to notice those which are used in basket-making, &c.

The Common Oster ( Salix viminalis,) grows in wet meadows, and sends
out long, slender branches, which are round, polished, and, when young,
covered with fine silken hairs. This variety is very much esteemed among
basket-makers. S. Forbiana, used for making the finer kinds of basket-
work, grows erect and bushy, with upright, slender, smooth twigs, of a
greenish-yellow color, very flexible and tough. S. Rubra, or green-leaved
osier, a small tree, with long, smooth, tawny branches, which are very
tough and pliant, is one of the most valuable varieties, if cut down yearly.

Mode of Cultivation.—Select a low, wet piece of ground, turn up the
soil to the depth of twelve inches, and prick down cuttings of four years’
growth, and eighteen inches long, at a distance of about three feet from
each other. Fence them around with dikes or hedges. The best time
for setting out osiers is during the winter months.

MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR.

January. — The chief business of this month is increasing the stock of
potted flowering-plants, some of which will require the assistance of a slight
hot-bed to bring them forward. This is to be understood as a means of
preventing them going back, rather than forcing them prematurely for-
ward; it will also be a means of advancing seedlings fit for pricking out
into other hot-beds, next month. A very moderate degree of artificial heat
is sufficient.

Fesruary.— The business of this month depends much on the kind of
weather which prevails. If cold, wet, and inclement, very little can be
done in the open garden, except protecting the bed-plants; but if the
weather be remarkably open and dry, something may be done in the way
of preparing the ground for the hardier annuals. A slight hot-bed will be
required to raise seedlings of various sorts of annual flowers, and to receive
seedlings of former sowings; thus, by keeping up a stock of desirable
things, in different stages of growth, the garden may be replenished as soon
as the cold season is fairly past.

Marcu.— This being the first month of spring, renders the garden a
busy scene, especially if the weather be open ; and everything recommended
for last month should be continued during the present, with the addition of
many other things of equal importance. The bed-flower plants, particularly
tulips, must be carefully guarded against sharp frosts following snow or
rain; if the state of the ground permit, all the plots and borders may now
be smoothed by the rake, preparatory to sowing the first general crop of

508 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

hardy annuals. Dahlia-seed may perhaps be sown in pans, and the old
tubers placed in dry leaf-mould, on a mild hot-bed, or on a bark bed in a
stove, to raise shoots of which young plants are made for flowering. All
green-house plants, which flower so readily and so beautifully in the open
air in summer, should now, if not done in the autumn, be propagated abun-
dantly by cuttings, on hot-bed heat, so as to be ready for the borders in June.
All the different sorts of what are called tender annuals may now be sown
in hot-beds, to raise plants ready fer potting as soon as they are large enough
to handle ; all potted flowers, as the auricula, carnation, pinks, stocks,
wall-flowers, &c., should now receive their spring top-dressing of fresh
compost, to assist them to flower strongly.

Aprit. — The flowers of some of the bulbs have now appeared ; those on
the auricula stage and on the different beds are coming forward, and require
constant care. Tulips and hyacinths will need to be sheltered from wind,
rain, or other injurious weather. Many seedlings which have been kept in
frames will be fit for transplanting. Another sowing of both hardy and
tender annuals may, towards the end of the month, be made to succeed
those sown previously. Seedling dahlias, and all the tender annuals,
require attention to get them forward. Cuttings of dahlias, and the slips
or cuttings of Chinese chrysanthemums, also, must be got forward, by pot-
ting singly and keeping them on a little heat, till fairly rooted, and ready to
go into other pots, or to their places in the open air.

May.— Sow another succession of hardy annuals and biennials, and thin
and transplant some of those previously sown. ‘Tender annuals, dahlias,
chrysanthemums, &c., lately potted and in frames, must be guarded by
mats against the cold of nights, and shaded, till they are well-rooted, from
the sun by day ; such as are intended to be put out in the open air should
be gradually hardened by leaving off the shading, propping, and defending
from insects. Carnation-seed may be sown. A small bed of ranunculus
may be planted to flower in August, and new beds of violets made. Rose-
trees may now be pruned back, to obtain a late bloom ; and all other shrubs
which produce their flowers on the shoots of the present year may, by cut-
ting back at this time, be made to flower again in autumn.

June.— All serious fears of the effects of night frosts are now over,
and therefore all the more tender kinds of flowering plants may be planted
abroad with impunity. Dahlias must now, if not done before, be placed in
their blooming stations, with stout stakes for their support. The situation
should be sheltered, but not.shady, and is better if treated with a fresh com-
post of rich loam and road-sand, well mixed, to grow in. Pot off seedlings
if not already done. Auriculas may now be shifted ; and tulip, hyacinth.
and ranunculus beds may still require attention, to preserve the beauty of the

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 509

late flowers, by shading or other care. Carnations now need attention to
insure vigorous growth and perfect blossoms. Continue to plant out tender
annuals, as well as any green-house plants which can be spared, to add to
the gayety of the garden; transplant annuals previously sown and standing
too thick ; sow biennials, and propagate by cuttings every plant of which a
supply may be wanted.

Juty.— Whatever was omitted to be done in June should now be exe-
euted without delay. Take up bulbs and tubers when the leaves have with-
ered ; sow and transplant annuals to bloom late ; propagate pinks, rockets,
carnations, &c. Divide auriculas and repot them, keeping them shaded ;
also, all other plants in pots, as Chinese primroses ; propagate pansies by
division ; sow biennials; prop Chinese chrysanthemums, and lay down
some of the long shoots to make bushy plants of the tops. Regulate the
patches of previously-sown annuals, and shift those of the green-house or
stove. In short, sowing, transplanting, shifting into larger pots, propagat-
ing by layers and cuttings, propping, shading, and watering when neces-
sary, form the constant employment of the flower-gardener during this
month.

Aveust. —If any bulbs which have done flowering yet remain in the
ground, they should now be taken up, dried, and stored in a safe place.
Cuttings of azaleas, ericas, and such similar plants, may yet be put in;
those of less woody character, as dahlias, chrysanthemums, geraniums
carnations, pinks, and other herbaceous perennials, may still be rooted.
Roses may be budded. Calceolarias intended to flower late should be cut
in, and at the same time receive a top-dressing of rich compost. Another
bed or two of pansies should be made to bloom before severe frosts set in.
Mignonette should be sown in pots and window-boxes, to stand the winter
in frames. Cyclamen persicum may now be turned out of the pots in which
they flowered, and placed in a dry border to gain strength during their tor-
pid state. Chrysanthemums, dahlias, and all other tall or climbing plants,
should have supports. Carnations, whether on stage, bed, or border, neatly
tied up and shaded, and layering for next year’s stock finished. Seedlings
may be bedded out. Shorten the first shoots of the rose-acacia, to cause a
second birth of late flowers. Ranunculuses already planted for blooming
in October must be kept rather moist, and the soil about them pretty firm.
Violets increased by dividing, and place some in a frame for early flowers.
Biennials may still be sown, and bulbs intended to flower in autumn
planted.

September. — In this month there is usually much irregularity of growth,
decayed flowers, stems and leaves, required to be cleared away, in ordet
that the flower-pots may not present the appearance of wildness or neglect.

43 *

510 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Seedlings of biennials and perennials should be thinned, and some of them
placed in pots, or transplanted to beds or places where they are intended to
remain; all cuttings, pipings, or layers, which are sufficiently rooted,
should also be removed to their final or temporary statious. Auriculas
should b» freed from dead leaves, the earth on the surface of the pots fresh-
ened up, a little compost added, and, if any require to be shifted, it may
now be done. ‘The seeds of ranunculus and anemone may be sown in pans
or boxes, if not already done. Dahlias are now in full beauty ; and the
Chinese chrysanthemums, whether in pots or in the open air, require fre-
quent watering, not only at the root, but over the leaves, to prevent their
flagging under the sun’s heat. Seeds of fine annuals, now ripe, should be
gathered and saved ; and valuable green-house plants which have flowered
in the borders should now be repotted. It is now, also, the proper time to _
prepare the beds intended for tulips, hyacinths, and ranunculuses, in order
that they may be properly settled by planting-time; and, indeed, much of
the beauty and neatness of a flower-garden the next season depends on the
preparation and disposition made at or soon after this time, whether it be in
improving the quality of the soil or in altering the forms of the beds; and
also many annuals may be sown in pots about this time, to be nursed under
glass in the winter, ready to be turned out early in spring. This is a prac-
tice which the florist should repeat frequently during the winter months.
Ocrozer. — Dahlias are still in beauty, and only require firm staking
against the wind. If any new seedlings have not yet flowered, and are ex-
pected or promise to prove excellent, they should be guarded by some tem-
porary covering against being nipped by an unexpected night-frost. Chinese
chrysanthemums standing in the open borders are in the same predicament;
their flower-buds may be destroyed before they are open, if not protected by
some slight covering; those in pots can be removed to a place of safety.
Pinks may still be bedded out, and carnation layers potted. These last,
together with all other flowers in pots, must be duly supplied with water.
About the end of the month, prepare a heap of light and fresh sandy loam,
and a sufficient number of proper-sized pots, for the reception of as many
bulbs and tubers, such as polyanthus-narcissus, tulips, hyacinths, irises,
crocus, &c., as may be required for early and late forcing ; prepare also the
beds for tulips, hyacinths, anemones, and ranunculuses, to be planted about
the beginning of next month. Dig the plots or clumps intended for the
hardier sorts of bulbs and tubers, which now require to be put in, namely,
narcissus of all sorts, snowdrops, scillas, aconite, &c. Pot roses, Persian
lilac, and the different sorts of American shrubs, and other plants proper for
forcing. Sow some more pots and boxes of mignonette and other flowers,
to go into frames. Perennials may be taken up, parted, and replanted;

suse

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 511

s0..e of the more showy sorts may be potted to go into frames, to advance
their flowering in spring. Roseries may be pruned and regulated, laying
down the long shoots and straggling branches, keeping the whole pretty
close to the ground. Standard roses require to be close-pruned and well
staked.

Novemser. — The previously planted beds for tulips, hyacinths, poly
anthus-narcissus, ranunculus and anemones, should all be planted early.
Where these flowers are cultivated in the best style, the collections are
named, and require much precision in placing them in the beds; but when
executed according to the approved rule, the success is never doubtful.
The other business of the season is taking up the tubers of dahlias, marvel
ot Peru, or others which would be in jeopardy from frost: pruning shrubs,
as well to keep them in form as to encourage flowering. All dead or de-
caying stems or leaves should be cleared off, the ground dug, the patches
of perennial flowers reduced, vacancies filled up, edgings repaired, and the
whole garden receive a general brush over, laying all as neatly for winter as
possible.

Decemser. — There is little or nothing to be done in the flower-garden
this month. The young seedlings of mignonette, and other flowers in
frames, must not be forgotten ; indeed, everything liable to be hurt by frost
must have sufficient protection. A few more pots of bulbs and tubers, and
also another succession of annual flowers, may be sown in pots to go into
frames, and be forwardea for planting abroad in the spring.

CHAPTER XI.

RURAL ARCHITECTURE, ETC.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF FARM-DWELLINGS AND COTTAGES — DAIRIES— BARNS
—STABLES—CART-SHEDS AND IMPLEMENT-HOUSES — GRANARIES — CATTLE-
SHEDS — ICE-HOUSES — SHEEP-FOLDS — PIGGERIES —- POULTRY-HOUSES — AR-
RANGEMENT OF THE FARMERY — GREEN-HOUSES — FENCES AND GATES —
HEDGES.

I. — FARM-DWELLINGS AND COTTAGES.

Tue edifices of this class which are necessary upon the farm are those
intended as residences for the farmer himself, and also for one or more of
the persons engaged in the cultivation of it. The character and extent of
tnese are regulated altogether by the extent of the farm, and the taste of its
occupier ; but even when of the smallest size and simplest construction, the
farmer’s house should not be deficient in anything essentially requisite for
the health, comfort and convenience, of even the most luxurious of mankind.

General Principles to be Observed. —'The chief condition to be observed, in
the construction of these, is utility ; for, in fact, there can be nothing really
ornamental, especially about the class of buildings which is now under con-
sideration, that is not founded on this basis ; and the size, style, and character
of the building, are to be modified according to the pecuniary means
available for its construction. As general rules in the erection of farm-
houses, it may be observed, that it is always desirable that they should be
placed upon a platform or terrace, with a view of keeping the ground floor
of the several apartments dry, and consequently rendering them warmer and
healthier ; that the chimneys should be placed in the interior walls rather
than in the exterior ones, this arrangement being better calculated to retain
the greatest portion of the heat coming from the fires within the house, and,
by the additional heat contained within the central mass of masonry, to
make the flues draw better ; and that the ground plan should approach as
near as possible to a square, as being that form which is calculated to afford
the greatest accommodation with a given amount of cost.

Plans for Buildings. — Keeping these principles in view, and accommo-
dating them to the particular situation in which the structure is to be erected,
every intelligent farmer will easily make out such a form and arrangement

as may suit his peculiar circumstances.
(512)

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 513

Model of a Moderate-sized Farm-house.— As a model for the construction
of a farm-house containing suitable accommodation for a farmer moderately
well off, the annexed plan may be referred to. From the entrance and stair-
case, A, there is a kitchen, 8, with back kitchen or store-room, c, and pantry,

|
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L , HU

p. There are two good parlors, & and F; astore-room and cellar, ¢, which
may he connected with the kitchen, or entered from the outside, as may be
thought necessary. The three small apartments, H, 1, K, may be used as
store-rooms for some of the smaller implements. It will perhaps be conve-
nient that one of them should be a water-closet, and another may be fitted
up as a carpenter’s work-shop, in which such jobbing may be done as the
persons employed on the farm can do, and thus save the time occupied in
carrying the articles to the workman. On the second floor there are three
good bed-rooms, one above the kitchen, and the others above the front rooms,
with a dressing-closet over the entrance. The apartments on each side of
the kitchen have lean-to roofs, and are not carried to the height of the other
parts of the building.

Model of a One-story House. —The ground plan of a house consisting of
one story only, and calculated for the accommodation of a farmer of quite
moderate means, is represented in the following figure. From the vestibule,
a, a door leads to the kitchen, s, from which is partitioned off a small bed-
room, c. The bed-room, p, hasia dark closet, £, and a light one, Fr. The
small apartment, c, may be used as a store-room, in the ceiling of which

514 FARMER’S KAND-BOOK.

there may be a trap-door, with a suitable ladder reaching to the roof, in
which may be two sleeping apartments.

Fig. 292.

Model of a Medium-sized House. —The following design is for a farm-
house of medium size, in which a portion of the front, and the whole of the

kitchen part, are of two stories, and the remainder of one story. Fig. 293
is the front elevation of this house.

a .___

The ground-plan of this structure is seen in the following cut, which may
be explained thus:— a, outer lobby; B, inner lobby ; c, dining-room ; ¢,
cluset; D, parlor; d, press; n, passage under the stairs ; e, press; F, back

RURAL ARCHITECTURE.

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515

516 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Fig. 296.

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RURAL ARCHITECTURE,

Fig. 298.

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518 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

passage ; G, kitchen ; H, back-kitchen or store-room: s, sink, ¢, oven, u,
boiler; 1, coal-house, or wood-house; K, a sleeping apartment; L, store-
closet, or pantry ; M, milk-house ; m, m, stone shelves ; N, closet under the
stairs, which may be a water-closet.

Fig. 295 represents a side elevation of the same house :

The upper floor, as seen in Fig. 296, may be explained as follows : —N,
stair-landing ; 0, P, Q, R, bed-rooms ; q, press; 8, T, closets.

Model of a Large Farm-house, §-c. —'The design which is seen in Fig.
297 is for a farm-house of the larger class, in which all the main parts of the
building are raised to the height of two stories. First is the front elevation.

A side elevation gives the view as seen in Fig. 298.

The ground plan is represented by Fig. 299, and the bed-chamber floor by
Fig. 300, explained in the manner following. In the ground plan, a is the
outer lobby; 8B, inner lobby; c, parlor; p, dining-room; &, business-
room ; F, store-room; G, principal stairs; H, passage to domestics’ rooms ;

Fig, 300.

————
—<_—_—=

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 519

h, h, back passage; g, stair to domestics’ rooms; 1, kitchen; x, back
kitchen ; L, wood-house ; m, milk-house; N, larder; 0, pantry; P, press;
R, water-closet ; v, kitchen-yard; vT, ash-pit; s, water-closet. In the bed-
chamber floor (Fig. 800), 8 is the stair-landing; 4, ©, F, K, bed-rooms; e,
principal stairs ; H, passage ; c, dressing-room, or room for various purposes ;
g, domestics’ stairs ; n, closet ; L, domestics’ room; 1, press; A, landing of
back stairs.

The Tudor Style. — Of late years, the fashion of architecture so prevalent

Fig. 301.

in the time of the Tupors, and called by that name, has been revived, even
| in cottage building, to a great extent, with very pleasing effect. It is, how-

Fig. 302.

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520 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

ever, to be borne in mind that this ornamental style is expensive, and there-
fore not desirable or practicable with those whose object is to provide
plain and substantial habitations, at the least possible expense. Fig. 301.
Model of Double Cottage Structure. — Fig. 302 exhibits two cottages in
juxtaposition, —a front elevation of the whole structure.
The ground plan, seen in Fig. 303, is constructed as follows: — a, the
lobby; B, kitchen; a, recess for bed ; c, store-room; c, oven; D, pantry; E,

Fig. 303.

stairs to upper floor ; e, closet or cellar under the stairs. ‘The bed-chamber
floor is represented in Fig. 804: —F, the stair-landing; 6, bed-room; g
recess for bed; H, bed-room ; 1, closet.

Fig. 304.

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Fig. 302 exhibits the cottage as having a single family-room or kitchen,
on the lower floor, and sleeping apartments above. However limited this
accommodation may seem, it is fully equal, if not superior, to that enjoyed

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Fy) |

by thousands of cultivators of the soi] in this country, and incomparably
superior to what is enjoyed by multitudes in the old countries. If we shall
make use of the kitchen for containing a bed, it gives three distinct rooms
for sleeping, with a small closet which may be used for the same purpose.
But the cottage, in place of containing one room below, may contain two, in
which case it will become more commodious.

Modifications of Plans. — With regard to the architectural design of the
cottage, it has not been deemed necessary here to do more than show such
an elevation as arises from the plan itself. But the architectural design
may be modified in any way. By giving a porch, by making mullions to
the windows, by causing the eaves to project, and by enlarging the chimney-
stalks, a more graceful exterior may be produced. A just taste will lead
the designer of the cottage, as of every other building, to make even its
architectural decorations in harmony with its known uses. A solid and

Fig. 305.

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warm dwelling, suited to the wants and conveniences of rural life, is what

we should desire the cottage to be ; and the taste will be best gratified when

the architectural characters of the building are seen to be in accordance with

these ends. The parts of the cottage on which the art uf the designex
44*

522 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

might be appropriately shown are those just referred to. Fig. 305 repre
sents a very neat sketch of a cottage of moderate size and cost.

II. DAIRIES.

General Remarks. — On proper attention to the construction of the dairy-
house materially depends the perfect manufacture of cheese and butter, and
nothing should be spared in rendering it as complete in accommodation for
the different operations as the nature and size of the farm will admit. We
allude not to the elegance of many gentlemen’s dairies, nor to some few of
those fitted up at great expense for a large business, but to those upon a
moderate scale, and in every instance where the object is not confined to the
mere consumption of the family. It is, indeed, the more necessary to
remark upon their deficiencies, and give some hints towards remedying
them, as many of them consist of nothing better than an out-shed attached
to the kitchen, and very few are erected with a proper degree of judgment.

Different Apartments of the Dairy-house. —The apartments which are
peculiarly appropriate to the dairy-husbandry are, one for milk; another
for butter in churning, or for scalding, pressing, and salting cheese; and a
third for implements, over which, in cheese-dairies, a store-room may be
placed under the roof.

Site. —The building, though placed conveniently to the house, yet should
be apart from any immediate contact with the odor of the farm-yard, or
other impurity, as well as from any pond of stagnant water, as nothing more

Fig. 306.

readily acquires an unpleasant taste or smell than milk and cream. An
uniform temperature being also of extreme importance, the site of the
structure should be such as to he as little as possible affected by the

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 523

extremes of either heat or cold. 'The most experienced dairy operators dis-
agree respecting the degree of temperature most suitable to the production
of cream and the making of butter; but they all admit that the house cannot
be rendered too cool during the summer, and in winter it is easy to keep up

‘a sufficient warmth. It is recommended by some of the most skilful that
the main aspect be open to the north and east; and the building should, if
possible, be shaded, either by other walls or by high trees, from the south
and west. The roof should be of a high conical form, or what builders call
a ‘span roof,’’ rising from the centre, and projecting downwards broadly
over the sides, to shade the body of the house, which should consist of a
narrow range of rooms, upon the plan of Fig. 306.

To secure a Proper Temperature. — Of the apartments represented in Fig.
306, the middle — that in which the milk is preserved — is the most import-
ant; and, therefore, in order to secure as equal a temperature as possible at
all seasons of the year, by excluding all direct communication with the
external air, the outer walls—as marked black in the plan— should be
made of sod and earth rammed firm to the breadth of full four feet in thick-
ness, while the other walls of the building need only be constructed of a
single brick, or even with lath and plaster, boarded on the outside; nor is
it necessary that they should be more than seven or eight feet high at the
sides. A funnel should also be run through the centre of the roof to a
couple of feet above it, to act as a ventilator, —a valve being fitted to it,
which, by means of a pulley, can be shut or opened at pleasure; or it may
be ventilated in a more purely scientific, and perhaps much better manner, by
means of the recently invented and approved apparatus now so much in use.

Arrangement of the Apartments. — The arrangement of these rooms will
therefore be thus:— a, the milk-house, with broad shelves all around, for
holding the vessels which contain the milk and cream; and in the middle
is a table for preparing the butter for market. The windows are closed
with lattices covered with gauze wire, to prevent the entry of flies, and
double shutters of wood, to guard against cold in winter; or common win-
dows with single shutters will do. 8, the churning-house, with a boiler
in one corner, and on the sides frames for cheese presses and vats, with
large vessels of lead, slate, wood, tin, or earthen ware, for holding the
whey, and pipes for conveying it to a cistern outside, for the use of the pigs.
c, the wash-house for the cleansing and care of the utensils; it therefore
contains a furnace with a cauldron for scalding the vessels, and a pump
communicating with a well. The outer door or entrance is here, and
adjoining it are placed stands under the verandah formed by the projection
of the roof, for exposing all the wooden implements which may have been
washed to be dried and sweetened by the sun and air.

524 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Store-loft or Upper Rooms.—In cheese-dairies, the stare-loft may be
placed immediately below the rise of the conical roof, — a communication
being made by a stair-case in a corner of the wash-house,—but many farmers
prefer having the loft over the cow-house, with the intention of for-
warding the maturity of the cheese by its warmth. Some large dairies,
however, have roofs in the ecummon form, with lofts and sleeping-rooms
over them; and others, of a moderate size, have the milk-house sunk
about three feet below the ground, with very thick brick and rubble walls,
standing ten feet high, thus admitting of a cheese-loft above. The build-
ings in the latter case are also constructed differently from that already
described, — the milk-house having three fronts encircled by a verandah, —
thus affording a strong draught of air through the windows, with only one
door, while the other rooms are of timbers rising up to the roof, and the
wash-house forms the only mode of communication between both. The
plan, on the whole, has the advantage of having the milk-house entirely
separate from the churning and scalding room, as well as of its being
somewhat cooler in summer; but what it gains in the latter respect it
loses in the constant equality of temperature, and its construction is more
costly.

Model of a Complete Dairy. —In Figs. 307, 308, a design is given of a

complete dairy, which may either form a part of the farmer’s house, or be
distinct from it. The front elevation is as above.

The plan of the ground floor, as seen in Fig. 308, is as follows : — A is
the scullery ; a, steam boiler; 0, sink in the window recess, in which the
water can be heated by a steam-pipe from the boiler; s, smal] sink commu-

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 525

nicatiag with the pigs’ troughs, in which the whey and other refuse are
thrown ; r, r, stone benches, on which the milk-pails are placed before they

Fig. 308.

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are put into the milk-room ; £, wood and coal cellar, with hatch, e, by which
the fuel is thrown in; c, churning-room; c, stone bench for milk-vessels ;

Fig. 309.

Bs, cheese-making room; 5}, 6, b, stone bench, for utensils; p, milk-room ,
d, d, stone bench round the room, for milk-vessels ; f, table for prepar-

526 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

ing butter, with basin and fountain; c¢, Gc, shed along the front of the
building, for drying dishes; Fr, F, horse-course for moving the churn; 4,
passage from scullery to milk-room ; m, stairs down to milk-room ; /, stairs
up to loft.

Fig. 309 gives a side elevation view of the building. The plan of the
upper floor or lofts, represented in Fig. 310, is thus explained: — a, the

Fig. 310.

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store-room over scullery ; B, store-room over milk-room; 4, }, shelves; c,
landing of stairs ; p, upper landing; £, cistern; e, closet.

Ill. BARNS.

Plan of Apartments.— On tillage farms, where grain is produced in large
quantity, the barn is an important part of the buildings of the farm; but on
farms where pasturage is almost exclusively practised, the barn becomes
less necessary. In the construction of barns a great change has taken place
since the introduction of the threshing-machine. ‘They were formerly con-
structed of dimensions capable of holding the greater part of the produce
of the farm. When the flail is used in the operation of threshing, the barn
usually consists of a plain oblong building, without any internal divisions,
and of a size proportionate to that of the farm. It is made to hold one stack

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 527

of corn at a time, and besides the space occupied by the corn, room must be
left for the threshing-fioor, on which the grain is placed for the action of the
flail. An essential circumstance in the arrangement of the barn, in this
case, is the formation of the threshing-floor of suitable materials, and in a
convenient situation. It is, for the most part, placed in the centre of the
building, but it may be laid down in any other part that may appear more
convenient. In the construction of these floors, wood, when properly laid
and put together, is probably the best, and the most secure from damp, and
may be arranged so as to be moved at pleasure. ‘The dimensions may be
from twelve to fourteen by eighteen or twenty feet. The materials should
be well seasoned previously to their being put together, in order to guard
against shrinking afterwards; and it is to be observed that the platform
thus made is to be slightly raised above the other parts of the floor.

When the threshing-machine is employed, the barn is conveniently
divided into a number of apartments, to facilitate the work in the operation
of threshing, and to enable the unthreshed corn to be kept separately from
the grain and straw. The barn for threshing consists of two apartments,
one above the other. In the upper apartment is placed the unthreshed corn,
as it is brought from the stack ; and in the event of the farmery being placed
in an inclined situation, advantage may be taken of this circumstance, by
placing the entrance to this apartment in the same plane with the surface of
the ground outside, which secures ready ingress and egress with the corn.
The threshing-machine is placed at one end of this apartment, and it extends
to that below. In this apartment also is placed the table on which the sheaves
are spread out, and the feeding-board at which the person stands who sup-
plies the corn to the machine. ‘The lower apartment is called the dressing-
barn, as the grain is received in it from the threshing-machine, and is
there winnowed and prepared for use. ‘The remaining apartment connected
with the barn is that in which the straw is received as it falls from the
machine, and when it is stored up for use. It should be of sufficient size to
contain the produce of one stack, at least; and it is desirable that it should
be even larger, so that straw may be preserved dry, after being threshed in
severe weather.

Light and Air.—In the construction of the barn it is important that
arrangements be made for ventilation and the admission of light. ‘These
objects are effected by glazed windows, consisting of two sashes, so that they
may be moved up and down, or by means of what are termed luffer-board
windows, or such as are formed of small ships of wood, instead of glass.

To prevent the Depredations of Vermin. — The floors should be formed or
arranged so as to prevent the depredations of vermin. These frequently
make passages into the space below the boards along the edges of the floor

528 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

ing between it and the walls; but this may be prevented by skirtings of thin
sheet-iron placed around the apartments, and so formed as to overlap the
floor an inch or more. The joining of the skirting with the wall is to be
well filled up with mortar, and the lower part is to fit accurately to the floor.

Model of the Washington Barn. —'The following is a sketch of the barn
structure sketched by Arthur Young for General Washington, explained
thus: — 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, the barn; 1, 2, 7, 8, the porch of do., with a small

Fig. 311.

door at 9; 10, 11, the great door at which the carts enter; 12, the threshing-
floor, which extends the space of 1, 2, 10, 11; 13, 13, bays, in which the
corn is stowed; 14, 14, 14, 14, sheds for cattle and horses; 15, 15, 15, 15,
mangers, out of which the cattle get their roots, straw, and chaff; 16, 16,
16, 16, passages, between two and three feet wide, for carrying food to the
cattle; 17, 17,17, 17, doors into the passage; 18, 18, 18, 18, principal
posts on which the sheds rest; 19, 19, 19, 19, gutters of bricks sloped for
conveying the urine of the cattle to 20, 20, 20, 20, cisterns, from which it is
every day regularly thrown on the dunghills, or made use of otherwise; 21,
21, 21, 21, sheds for various uses; 22, 22, two yards, with each a shed for
shelter, to be applied to any purpose wanted—one for sheep, surrounded
with low racks — another divided for a horse or two, loose, or the other half
for yearling calves; 23, 23, enclosure of pales; 1,2,8,3,4,5,6,7, the main
body of the barn, which rises from fourteen to twenty feet to the eaves, all
the rest of the shed being placed against it. The quantity of cattle room
may be enlarged by a slight extension of the sheds at each end ; and all these
points may be made to vary according to the views, circumstances and wants,
of each farmer.

4
-
*<

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 529

Buei’s Barn. — The figure below is the ground-plan of a barn according
to Buel’s views; a is the barn-floor, fourteen feet wide; 0, b, bays for hay

Fig. 312.

and grain, eighteen feet wide and ninety-two feet long; c, c, stables for cat-
tle and horses, thirteen feet wide in the clear; d, d, passages to stables, four
feet wide ; c, e, mangers for feeding, two and one half feet wide; f, f, great
doors, fourteen feet wide ; ¢, g, stable-doors, five feet wide, double. Length
of barn, one hundred feet; width, fifty feet; posts, eighteen feet ; pitch of
roof, twelve and one half feet; height of lean-to posts, seven feet; pitch of
stable-roof, eight feet ; length of side lean-tos, one hundred feet; length of
end lean-tos, thirty-eight feet. ‘The end view (A) and the side view (B)
are seen in Fig. 313. The barn is framed as if to stand alone, omitting
the lower girt at the ends on each side of the large doors. The lean-
tos are then framed on to the barn in the simplest manner, the passage
being round the main body of the barn, excepting at the ends, where the
passage is zm the main barn, and the lean-tos there only sixteen feet wide,

45 21

530 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

and the manger is fitted up to the main barn. Only one passage. is made to
go into the short stables at the ends. Stalls are made seven and one half

Fig. 313.

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feet wide, and boarded between; and each ox or cow is tied next to the
partition side of the stall, which prevents their getting together, and saves
much room. ‘The doors are sufficiently wide to drive in a pair of oxen

Fig. 314.

yoked, and large spikes are driven in the plates all round the stables, to hang
harness, yokes, and chains upon. The bottoms of the mangers are raised

an
r
i 7

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 531

ten inches from the floor and laid double: the sides of the stable are also
battened with thin boards inside, which makes them perfectly tight and
warm; windows, with sliding shutters, are made in the sides, to throw out
the manure. Girts run parallel with the main floor in the posts, across
which are laid poles, nine feet above the floor, on which hay or grain can be
piled up to the peak. This barn will hold two hundred tons of hay. and
forty-six yoke of oxen, or one hundred cows or horses. If only ordinary
stock is kept, the Jong lean-tos need be only eighteen feet wide, and the
short ones fourteen feet. Granaries can be partitioned off from the bays or
stables, as may be convenient. If a threshing-machine is used, a part of the
stable can accommodate it. On this model barns of any size may be built.
The improved barn-door roller, of which we give samples, ought to be used
by every barn-builder. (Fig. 314.)

IV. STABLES.

Site. — Stables should be placed in such a position that ready access may
be had to them, without the necessity of passing through courts or yards
where any animals are kept. They may have a court in front for containing
the dung and soiled litter; but it is better that they be contiguous to the
yards where the cattle are kept, so that the dung may be mixed with that of
the other animals. If circumstances allow, there should be an adjoining
cistern for holding water. It is better, for the regularity of superintendence,
that all the farm-houses be under one roof, and, if more than one stable is
necessary, that all the stables be together.

Light and Air.—The essential point, in,the construction of the stable, is
to afford sufficient cubical space for air and ventilation, and sufficient area for
the animals and the workmen who attend them. ‘The most suitable breadth
for farm-stables is eighteen feet within walls, though sixteen will do, and
seventeen may be regarded as a convenient medium. ‘There is no great
objection to the extension of the breadth of stables and other buildings,
except the expense of roofing, which, from the greater size of the timbers
necessary, increases in a great proportion with the extension in breadth.
The whole space should be left free to the roof, no lofts of any kind being
suffered to be erected above the horses, so that the benefits of sufficient space
and ventilation may be secured in the fullest degree. No point is more
necessary to be attended to than this, in the farm-stable occupied by a great
number of animals.

The proper manner of ventilating stables, as of all apartments where
animals are kept, is by openings at the ridge of the roof, by which means tha
heated vapor of the stable is suffered to escape. If these ventilators are of
the proper number and size, there is no need of apertures in the walls, as

532 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

some recommend, and seem to think necessary. We may be certain, that
if we allow the heated air to escape above, the colder will descend to occupy
its place. The air within the stable will, indeed, be kept above the medium
temperature without, but in no such degree as to injure the health of the
animals. It will suffice, when the horses are out of the stables at work, to
open the windows and doors, so as to remove the effluvia which have been
evolved from the dung and litter; and, in warm weather, the windows may
be opened when the horses are feeding. ‘The ventilators may be formed by
frames with louvre-boards, inclining so as to prevent the entrance of rain.
But they may be simply and conveniently formed by making openings on
each side of the ridge, defended from the weather by the roof-boarding and
the ridge-lead. The windows of the stable may be formed with a glazed
upper part, and sliding frames, below, as in the case of those of the granary.

Stalls. — Each horse should have his own stall, which should be six feet
wide. Horses are always reluctant to lie down when they have not sufficient
space, and many will scarcely lie down in the stable at all. The partitions
of the stalls should be eight feet long, five or six feet high behind, and seven
in front. ‘They are almost always formed of boards mortised into posts, one
near the wall, and one at the other end of the partition. The hinder post
may be sunk deep in the floor, and be of the height of the partition, or it
may be carried up to a beam extending along all the stalls; this last method
of construction is both substantial and adapted to the long line of stalls in the
stable, and in this case, also, the hinder posts are not sunk into the ground,
but let into stone sockets.

Racks and Mangers. — The horse receives his food from racks and mangers.
The rack may either be elevated above the head of the horse, or rest upon
the ground. In the former case, the horse pulls down his food in mouthfuls,
and this is attended with less inconvenience than, from the awkward position
of the racks, might be inferred. In this way, too, it is generally believed
that there is less waste of hay than when the rack is on the ground. But,
however this may be, this species of rack is found sufficiently suitable in
common practice: It consists of two horizontal rails, into which are fixed
upright pins, slightly inclining outwards from the lower rail. The pins may
be two inches in diameter and three inches apart, and the lower rail may be four
feet six inches from the floor. This rack should extend the whole width of
the stalls, and the slighter the inclination given to the upright pins, the better.
It is common to make smaller racks of iron, projecting from the wall. The
upper rack, for hay, does not supersede the propriety of having a lower one,
for straw and green forage, which are best supplied from a low rack. It
has been often proposed that racks shall be altogether done away with, and
the horses fed entirely on cut straw and hay, mixed with farinaceous food.

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 533

There is an apparent economy in this practice, but experience shows, that,
in the case of the farm-horse, it is better that there be a system of racks, in
which food is placed before the animals at all times.

The manger is an oblong box, open at top, and placed at one side of the
stall. Its dimensions may be fifteen inches wide at top, twelve inches at
bottom, and nine inches deep. In this box the corn of the horse is placed at
stated times, and in a given quantity ; and when boiled or prepared food is
given, it is likewise placed in it. The system of partially feeding horses
with prepared food, as potatoes or turnips boiled, mixed with farinaceous
food, is an excellent one. ‘To suit this method of treatment, the manger
should be of sufficient capacity, as of the dimensions above stated, and two
and one half feet long. What is not occupied by the manger is occupied by
the lower rack. The outer edge of both the manger and rack should be
formed of a continuous bar of stout wood, three inches thick, and four inches
deep. Into this bar is to be fixed a ring, through which is to pass the end
of the halter which attaches the horse, with a little iron weight at its
extremity, to keep it tight. Often, however, though not so properly, the
end of the halter is merely tied to the ring.

Vv. CART-SHED AND IMPLEMENT-HOUSES.

Site, gc. — The injurious effects of the exposure to the weather on struc-
tures of wood are well known, and they have suggested the utility of placing
the carts and other implements of the farm in situations where they would be
free from exposure. ‘The carts and larger implements are usually placed in
sheds open in front, but defended on all other sides. The circumstances to
be attended to in their construction are to place the open side in that direc-
tion which is most sheltered, and to preserve the implements in it from rain.
It is not, however, necessary that the whole of the apartment should be
devoted to that purpose, and it has accordingly been found an economical
arrangement to have the granary, or some other store-room, above the cart-
shed. Connected with the cart-shed there may be some apartment for hold-
ing the smaller implements, which is to be secured by a door and lock. One
part of it may be devoted to the carpenters’ tools.

VI. GRANARIES,

Site, Gc. — Among the buildings used as repositories, the granary may
be mentioned ; but, except on the larger class of farms, a separate building
will not be necessary for holding grain. The most convenient situation
however, for the granary, is above the cart-shed. In barns with threshing-
machines, it is sometimes formed immediately above the floor on which the

machine works, which admits of the corn being immediately raised to it
45 *

534 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

from the ground-floor, either by the threshing-machine itself, or by a wind-
lass, easily worked by one man. In this case, as well as in every other in
which the granary is placed over another building, it is always convenient
to have a windlass to it, either immediately over a trap-door in the floor, or
over a door in the outside wall.

VII. ICE-HOUSES.

Necessity for.—In a climate like that of the United States, ice is
indispensable in summer—contributing alike to the comfort, health, and
convenience of all who use it. In the cities it can always be readily
obtained from those who make a business of securing a supply at the
proper season, and preserving it for sale in sultry weather; but in the
country no such facilities exist, and each individual farmer must either
lay up a sufficient stock during the winter months, or suffer a depriva-
tion of those cooling and refreshing beverages which can only be con-
cocted with the aid of ice. To preserve ice properly, it should be stowed
in a repository specially constructed for the purpose, somewhat like that
described below.

Mode of Construction, — Select and mark off a piece of ground twelve
feet square, and excavate it to the depth of twenty feet, sloping the sides
as they descend, until, like an inverted pyramid, they meet in a point at
the centre, when they may be faced with brick, or rabble mixed with
Roman cement, which will soon form a solid wall. At the bottom sink a
well down to gravel, and fill it in with loose stones — thus supplying an
outlet for the water which may accumulate. Cover the whole with a
double board roof, rising to a puint, and leave between a space of three
inches, which may be filled with straw, tan, or powdered charcoal.
A more durable roof may be constructed of brick, but the first cost will
be greater. Place the entrance on the north side, and let it open into a
porch, six or eight feet long, closed by a tightly-fitting door at each end;
and protect the house from the sun’s rays by planting trees around it on
all sides. Pave the surrounding ground with brick to the distance of
some feet, giving it such a pitch as will carry of all rain-water.

Filling with Ice. — Cover the sides and bottom with straw, to prevent
the ice from coming in contact with the brick-work, and pack the ice as
tightly as possible. If the weather is very cold, and the ice sawed out
in squares, this may very readily be done; and, water being poured in
between the pieces, the whole will quickly become a solid mass. When
the house is filled, cover the ice with straw to the depth of three or four
inches, over which lay boards or plank, to keep all snug.

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. BE,

VIII. SHEEP-FOLDS.

General Remarks.— A considerable quantity of manure may be saved
by folding sheep at nights during the winter months, though such prac-
tice would be injurious in warm weather. As a general rule, it will be
found that sheep carefully sheltered from the severe weather of winter,
will be in better condition, and their wool finer and softer, than if left
exposed to the chilling blast and pelting storm. The sheep-fold is an
important addition to the fixtures of a farm, more particularly of one
specially devoted to sheep husbandry.

Arrangement of Sheep-Folds.—Enclose three sides of a piece of ground
with a shed eighteen feet wide, twelve feet high on the inside, and five
feet high on the outside, which must be weather-boarded on the outside,
and also on the inside, to within five feet of the ground. At each angle
construct a building — one for hay, and the other for routs — with doors
opening under the sheds, for the more convenient feeding of the sheep.
Make the root-house walls and roof double, and fill in the space with
some non-conductor, to prevent the roots from freezing: but be careful
to secure proper ventilation by means of a flue, closed with a slide.
Guard the open side of the square from intrusion by erecting a neat
fence across it, and give the ground under the sheds a sufficient slope to
carry all moisture into a gutter, running round the whole plot, and
emptying into a pit on the outside,

Feed-Racks and Troughs. — Place the racks in a line, facing the open
part of the sheds, leaving a space between them for the sheep to pass in
and out; and make each rack of a single plank, twenty feet long,
twelve inches wide, and at least two inches thick, into each edge of one
side of which, rounds three feet long may be so inserted as to incline
outward at the tops, where the distance between them will measure three
feet. Leave a space of five inches between each round, and set in two
or three at each end, to prevent the sheep from jumping into the racks
while feeding. Mount each rack upon four substantial legs, two feet
high, giving them a sufficient spread to guard against their sinking into
the ground, or being overturned. Place the troughs in a position conve-
nient to the root-house, and make them of plank; giving a length of
twenty feet, a width of twelve inches, and a depth of four inches, to
each. Over each trough fix a plank on supports, rising from each end,
and tenoned to fit into mortise-holes in the plank. A long nail passing
through each tenon will keep_the cover firmly in its place, and thus the
sheep will be prevented from jumping into the troughs, and soiling the
food. Before the hay-racks are filled each day, the sheep must be turned
out of the yard, to keep them from getting seed in their wool; and if the

536 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

racks are well filled in the morning, each will feed 100 sheep during the
day. One filling will be sufficient, provided the sheep can pick up a little
grass, or they are fed with some other kind of green food. They must
be well supplied with water, which may be readily done by means of a
pump and long trough. Salt will also be frequently required.

IX. CATTLE-SHEDS.

Uses and Requasites. — Cattle-sheds are used either for lodging milch
cows or young cattle, or for stall-feeding for the butcher. The principal
requisites, in buildings of this description, are to be capable of being
properly ventilated, to be constructed so as to require the least possible
labor in feeding the cattle and cleaning away the dung, and to have the
stalls so formed as to keep the animals dry and clean, with sufficient drains
to carry away, and reservoirs to collect, the urine and dung.

Arrangement of Cattle-sheds.—'The common method of arrangement in
these houses is to place a long beam of wood, about five feet high and two
feet from the wall, at the heads of the animals; and to this beam the posts
are fastened to which the cattle are attached. The usual distance of these
posts is about four feet. A movable ring is placed round each post, from
which a chain is extended round the neck of the cattle, and they feed from
a yw manger or trough, formed merely of a raised edge of stone or wood,
between which and the wall the food is placed.

A more perfect arrangement is now adopted. This consists in placing

Fig. 315.

4 «) fl
aw

the heads of the animals at such a distance from the wall as to leave a nar-
row pathway in front, by which the food can be more easily placed before

+
va
a,

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 537

the cattle, and placing each animal in a separate stall, the stalls being
divided by low partitions, just of sufficient size to prevent them from inter-
fering with each other. A movable ring and chain are also here used for
attaching the animals, the ring being, in this case, moving on a vertical rod,
instead of the wooden post. ‘This arrangement is represented in Fig. 315.
A, A, A, are the partitions between the animals; B, B, B, the upright
iron rods, to which are fixed the rings and chains by means of which the
cattle are tied; C, C, C, represent the raised edges, or curb-stone, of the
manger in front; D, D, D, the partition separating the manger from the path-
way by which the food is conveyed to the stalls ; E, the pathway in front ;
and F, that behind the animals.

In the internal arrangement of cattle-sheds for cows or oxen, the animals
may be made to stand either across or along the building. When ranged
lengthwise, the width of the house should be, at least, sixteen feet, and the
space allowed for each of the animals of the larger kind should be six feet.
The distance from the manger to the wall, being the passage for carrying
along the food, may be four feet, to admit the attendant to supply the
animals with their food with facility. A distinguishing feature in the
arrangement of houses in which cattle are tied up is the open gutter
behind, which is rendered necessary on account of the comparatively fluid
nature of the animals’ dung. ‘The space between the manger and gutter is
regulated by the size of the animals which are to occupy the stalls. The
gutter is generally made a foot broad, and three or four inches deep, and it
is usually made perpendicular in the sides.

The organization of cattle being less delicate than that of the horse, they
are not so liable to suffer from vicissitudes of temperature as that animal,
and the same precautions for maintaining an uniform temperature in their
houses are not necessary. Complete ventilation is, however, essential ;
and, to secure this object, milch cows, as well as young cattle, are fre-
quently placed in open sheds, care being taken that the open side of the
shed is sheltered from the elements.

The most convenient arrangement, especially in the case of the larger.
sized animals, is probably that in which they stand lengthwise in the house ;
there being a space in front of the mangers for carrying along the food; a
passage behind them in which the attendant stands in cleaning them out,
and from which he supplies them with litter; a gutter communicating with
a reservoir, from which the dung and urine are conveyed, as occasion may
require. This arrangement is simple and efficient. ‘The animals are sup-
plied with food, and cleaned out with facility ; but this is not the only plan
of arrangement by which these objects may be effected. A cow-house, or
cattle-shed, in which the animals stand across the building, will afford the

538 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

same accommodation as that in which they stand with their heads against
the side wall, at less expense of walling and roofing, for the passages before
and behind serve for the accommodation of two sets of cattle.

Calf-houses. —'The calf-houses are to be placed convenient to the cow-
houses, to lessen the labor of carrying the milk to them; but they should
not be so near as to permit the cow to see or even hear her calf, if possible.
In the construction of these apartments, the chief requisites are to secure
cleanliness and a proper degree of heat, and to guard against dampness,
which would be injurious to the young animals. .To effect the latter pur
pose, the floor may be raised some distance from the ground, and formed of
laths or bricks, placed in such a manner as to allow any liquid matter to
pass through; and this artificial floor is to be raised so high above the
surrounding surface as to admit of the intervening space being cleaned out
occasionally, otherwise it would become a receptacle of filth, producing the
most offensive exhalations. ‘The litter is thus kept dry under the calves ;
but it must not be allowed to accumulate for a Jength of time, for the mass
thus formed would prevent the moisture from getting through.

The interior arrangements of calf-houses are sometimes similar to those
described, and. they are, in -fact, cow-houses in miniature. A more simple
and equally convenient arrangement consists in placing the calves in separ-
ate divisions, each having a manger or crib for holding a small quantity of
hay, or young grass, according to the season. ‘The partitions between the
calves should be so high as to prevent their reaching over to one another ;
for otherwise they suck each other’s ears, and often suffer from lumps of
matted hair being thus conveyed to the stomach.

The feeding-cattle may have houses of the same construction as those
described ; but they may also be fed in yards with sheds attached to them,
to which they can retire during the night, or in stormy weather.

Apartment for Boiling Food, Apparatus Necessary, and the Mode of
Proceeding. — Connected with the cattle-sheds and feeding-yards, there may
be an apartment for boiling or steaming food, in which a steaming apparatus
is placed. Any kind of wooden box or barrel will answer for this purpose,
so formed as to be readily filled and emptied. The steam is to be conveyed
in a pipe to the lower part of the vessel, which ought to have a sliding
board at the bottom, to allow the contents to be discharged when ready.
The vessel may be filled with water, though this is not necessary in the
case of succulent roots, as the potato and turnip, because the steam is
quickly condensed. But when corn is to be boiled, it should be covered
with water, to effect the condensation of the steam. An apparatus of this
construction is represented in Fig. 316. It consists of a furnace and cast-
iron boiler, A, furnished with a safety-valve, to render it secure from danger,

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 539

even in the hands of the most inexperienced person. This boiler may be
made to supply warm water for other purposes in the farmery, the water
being drawn off by a cock in the lower part of it. It is supplied with water

Fig. 316.

oes a

C > [ — I LF
2 = ; mi al Gl
a

= = pL | WO ol
i an

AN
i tal All a

from a cistern, B, placed at the height of five or six feet above it. When
filled, the cistern requires no further attention, as the boiler regulates its
supply of water by means of a float inside, attached to the valve in the
cistern. Two casks, c and p, are intended to hold the potatoes, turnips,
or other matters to be steamed. The steam is conducted to these from the
boiler by a pipe branching off to each by stopcocks. As many casks as may
be necessary for the supply of food may be attached in the same way.
These, it has been said, are furnished with sliding hatches in the bottom:
for taking out the food when ready, and are raised as far from the ground
as will admit a barrow or trough to be introduced under them, to receive
the contents when they are ready to be withdrawn. For boiling grain,
the cask for holding it differs from those used in steaming roots only by
not having a hatch in the bottom, as the hatch could not be easily made
tight, which is necessary in this case, as water must be mixed with the
grain in the same quantity, or nearly, as if it were to be boiled in a boiler
in the common way. It may be added, that the hatch not being tight in
boiling potatoes is an advantage, and even necessary for allowing the con-
densed steam to run out, and also all the earthy matters from the skins of
the potatoes. In the figure, one of the casks is represented with the lid
pressed down by means of the vertical bar, which is employed for this pur-

540 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

pose during the operation of boiling or steaming. In the other cask, the lid
is represent:d as opened, with the vertical bar removed to one side.

There is a steaming apparatus of an improved construction in use, con-
sisting, like that already described, of a metal boiler with safety-valve and
cocks, from which proceeds the pipe which supplies the buckets with steam
by stopcocks branching off to each. The buckets, in this case, are composed
entirely of cast metal, made to hold a determinate quantity, as a bushel or
two bushels, and slide with facility off their stand when ready to be emptied
and refilled. Barrels, or other capacious vessels, may likewise be attached,
to which additional pipes convey the steam; warm water may constantly be
had from the boiler, and the superfluous steam may be usefully applied for
heating, and other purposes of domestic economy.

X. PIGGERIES.

Site, §c. — The piggery is usually raised as a mere shed attached to the
wall of some farm building, and as near as possible to the kitchen and
dairy, — which are too often connected together, — the sole reason of which
position being the convenience of supplying it readily with wash. A
certain degree of nearness is indeed advisable, for the saving of trouble ; and
in some farm-houses there is a door or window in the back kitchen commu-
nicating with the hog-sty, through which the refuse vegetables and wash
can be thrown to the animals without encroaching on time ; but the air of a
dairy should be ever preserved quite uncontaminated from any foulness of
scent. ‘Those on a large scale should, therefore, be so constructed as to
divide the range of sties from the dairy-vard by a wall sufficiently high to
preclude all communication of unpleasant odor ; yet having a cistern, with a
trough, or pipes, passed through the wall, so as only to have to cross the
court and place the fluid in the reservoir.

Plan of Construction. —- Upon whatever scale the piggery is to be erected,
it should be raised upon a little declination, so as to allow of the drainage
of the urine, to kecp the animals dry, and divided into sties of between six
and seven feet in width, and fourteen or fifteen feet long ; the back part of
which should be covered with a low roof, and sufficiently large to allow a
_ fatting hog to lie down conveniently. These sties are sometimes left open
in front ; but although ventilation should be attended to, yet, incold weather,
they should be boarded nearly to the top, allowing only of a door to enter,
and a couple of inches open space at the bottom to carry off the uiine. The
boards, if placed in a groove of the frame-work, can be removed at pleasure,
either to clean the sty or to render it cool. The uncovered part, which is
used as a court for the animal to feed in, should be boarded in front by a
low paling so as to admit the sun and air, and the trough for the victuals

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 541

placed in one corner ; but, as he is very apt to put his feet into the trough,
thus soiling and wasting his food, hinged shutters, which give way to the
pig’s snout and close on his withdrawing his head, are by some persons
fixed before the troughs, in order to prevent him. Bars are also occasion
ally nailed at stated distances across the top of the trough, so as to confine
each pig separately to his food, without being able to drive away his fel-
lows. A better mode, however, is to place the trough outside the front
paling of the pen, with a hole in it only just large enough to admit of his
head ; by which means waste will be avoided, and the trough can be filled
and cleaned without entering the court. ‘The sties for breeding-sows, and
those used for store-pigs, may be somewhat wider, and the trough should,
of course, have a sufficient number of apertures for the little pigs’ heads,
together with a separate trough, having a larger opening, for the sow, as
well as high enough to prevent the sucking pigs from getting into it.
Where water can be conveniently obtained, it is a good plan to have a small
spout directed through the sties, not only for their more easy cleansing, but
to afford the opportunity of always allowing the animals to drink. The
building, when not circular, may thus be extended to any length ; and if
connected at one end with a boiling-house, and at the other with a cess-pool,
into which the drains are emptied, the elevation of the whole will wear the
appearance indicated in the following cut.

Fig. 317.

Pigs in Separate Sties, for Fattening.—I1f many pigs be reared, it is
always advisable to keep those of different ages from each other, — and even
those of the same brood are not of the same strength ; they should, there-
fore, be placed in separate sties, not containing more than three or four in
each, and those of as nearly as possible equal disposition. In the fatting
of hogs, however, many breeders feed them singly in sties which only
allow them to lie down, without being admitted to the court; and some
breeders do not allow them room even to turn. Some of these sties are
built in the form of a cage of planks, one side of which is made to move

542 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

with pegs, so as to fit them exactly, and to be enlarged with their growth ;
they are either placed upon wheels for the convenience of moving them, or
upon feet a few inches from the ground, with a gently sloping floor to carry
off the filth from the back door, and having holes at the bottom for the water
to drain from, while they feed through a hole in front. The more generaj
plan, however, is to build the sties in divisions, each to contain a pig, and
to fit him as near as may be ; on one side is a range of small troughs, and
on the other a row of sliders, which shut in the pigs. No litter of any kind
is permitted, as the stalls are placed upon an inclined plane and swept out
every day, and the chewing of their litter is thought to be injurious to their
thriving. They are found to fatten more speedily, and consequently upon
less food, in those sties, than in the common ones, in which they can turn
about. This is attributed to their quietude ; and it is said that hogs half
fat, — weighing seventy pounds, — when put into one of these cages, may
be brought to double their weight within four weeks.

XI. POULTRY-HOUSES.

General Principles and Requisites. —It is well known that too much cold
renders fowls torpid, retards and diminishes their laying; that too much
heat enfeebles them ; that the want of good water brings on many disorders ;
that too much moisture induces rheumatic swellings ; and that an infected
atmosphere renders them sickly and less prolific, injures their flesh, and
makes them difficult to rear. From these circumstances may be deduced
the principles upoa which all poultry-yards should be regulated. The minor
details, however, differ considerably in different countries ; and particularly
the French and English breeders are quite opposed to each other on several
points. In presenting, therefore, the different views and modes of two
people so skilful in rearing the various fowls as the French and English,
we shall elicit all the most valuable information, with regard to the subject,
which will be instructive to the American farmer.

According to the French, in order to unite all the advantages desirable
in a poultry-yard, it should be neither too cold during winter nor too hot
during summer ; and, if possible, it should be rendered so attractive to the
hens as to prevent their laying in any by-place away from it. The extent
of the place should be proportional to the number of fowls kept ; but it will
be better too small than too large, particularly in winter, for the mutual
imparting of animal heat. There is no fear of engendering infectious dis-
eases by too much crowding; and it is found, in fact, that when fowls
are crowded into a small space, their desire for laying continues, even in
winter.

Situation, Form, §c.— The best situation for a poultry-house is facing’

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 543

the east, — neither too far from, nor too near to, the farm-house. The form
may be a parallelogram, of twelve feet long by ten broad, and as many in
height. The floor must be raised about a foot abcve the level of the ground,
the walls thick, very rough cast, whitewashed without and within, having
no chinks, crevices, or cavities, to harbor polecats, weasels, foxes, rats,
mice, or even insects ; and the roof ought to project considerably, in order
to ward off rain, moisture being a most destructive enemy to poultry. The
door ought to be small, with an opening at top for the fowls to get in and
out, descending therefrom by a ladder, to and from the roosting-place,
which should be on a level with it, having one circular window towards the
east, and another opposite the west, both of wire-work, with a storm shutter.
These windows are chiefly for ventilation, and must be kept always open
in summer, and as carefully shut in winter, except on fine days, during
sunshine.

Roosting-perches and Nests. —In the interior angles must be placed, upon
edges or other supports, at ten or twelve inches distance, roosting-perches,
of a square form, for fowls cannot bend their toes so as to grasp firmly a
smooth, round perch. The intermediate spaces are appropriated for laying-
nests, each covered with two boards, meeting together like a roof, to protect
the laying hens from the dung of those on the perches, and to prevent them
from being disturbed. These nests are osier baskets, firmly fixed against

_ the walls, well furnished with cut rye straw, often renewed, and disposed

so that the fowls may not break the eggs on going in or coming out. A
watering place is indispensable, and the water ought to be fresh.

To Render the Poultry-house Healthy.—In order to render the poultry-
house healthy, it will not be requisite to fumigate it by burning aromatic
plants, incense, or benzoin ; fire, air and water, alone are quite sufficient for
ventilation and cleanliness. It will be sufficient, therefore, after the fowls
have left their roosts, to open the door and the windows of the poultry-
house, and, from time to time, to burn a small bundle of straw, for the pur-
pose of causing a circulation of fresh air, and to destroy insects. It will
also be necessary to scrub and wash with cold, or rather hot water, and a
little vinegar, the nest-basket, roosting-perches, and feeding-troughs.

The surface of the yard ought to be frequently swept, washed, and it may
be covered with a bed of gravel, or with straw cut small. /

The same house ought to be kept exclusively for the common fowls, other
roosting-places being provided for the other sorts ; for though these will not
be very dissociable with others through the day, they do not like to sleep
under the same roof with species different from themselves. In particular,
they will not suffer capons, even of their own family, to occupy the same

544 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

roosting-perch with themselves. The hens not only show them indifference.
but decided aversion.

Conveniences for Hatching. —It is important to have in poultry-houses
several small, warm hatching and nursing wards, for hatching the eggs, and
sheltering the newly-hatched chickens. In the ward appropriated to the
latter, there ought to be separate cages or coops, where each mother remains
eight days with her family, after which she is removed into an enclosure to
finish the rearing of them, till they can without danger be trusted by them-
selves.

Appurtenances. —The accessories of the French poultry-house are—a
small trench filled with dry sand and ashes, in which the fowls may roll, to
free themselves from vermin ; another small trench, containing horse-dung,
to be frequently renewed, and in which they amuse themselves, particularly
in winter, by scratching for corn and worms ; two squares of turf, on which
they may pasture and divert themselves ; a thick, bushy hedge, or, what are
better, trees, to furnish shelter from the heat of the sun, —the best sorts of
trees being the mulberry and the cherry, as they are very fond of the fruit ;
a shed or coping, under which they may take shelter from rain; stone or
wooden cisterns or troughs, or vessels of some sort, with pure water, in
order to prevent them seeking by chance what is bad or corrupted.

Air and Space essential. —It has been stated that the French poultry-
breeders think it advisable to keep their fowls confined in as small a space
as practicable, in order that the warmth may induce them to lay; in Eng-
land, on the contrary, a free circulation of air, and abundant space to take
exercise in, are reckoned absolutely essential for poultry. Both modes
are, to a certain extent, right; for warmth, and a close, warm roosting-
place, will certainly produce most eggs, while air and exercise are neces
sary to rear fowls of a superior description for the table.

Accommodations for Keeping Poultry on a Large Scale. — Where poultry
are kept on a large scale, an enclosure, varying from half an acre to an acré
in extent, is set apart for their use, enclosed either by a wall or by a fence
of paling, but not by a hedge, as the fowls will get through the latter kind
of fence, and will, besides, be very troublesome in laying their eggs in the —
hedge. The enclosure should be well drained ; and if it has a stream of
water running through it, or a pond in the middle, or at one end, it will be —
best. If it has not these conveniences, it should have a pump, with troughs
for the fowls to drink from, and these troughs should be cleaned every day.
Part of the yard should be flagged, for feeding the fowls on ; part covered
with sand or fine gravel, for them to wallow in; part laid with turf, that the —
fowls may find insects and earthworms, and eat grass when they feel in-
clined ; and part covered with bricklayer’s dust, rubbish, dry mortar, and

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 545

broken oyster-shells, or other similar materials, rammed down, so that the
fowls may amuse themselves with pecking and scratching the ground, with-
out being able to take very much of the limy matters from it at once. Where
convenient, the feeding and wallowing places should be roofed over ; but the
rest of the ground should be exposed to the open air. It must be observed,
that, when fowls are kept in small, confined places, they should always be
supplied with some kind of limy matter; as, unless they are, the hens will
first lay eggs without shells, and after a time will cease to produce any
eggs at al]. In towns, it is, therefore, customary, with the keepers of
poultry for profit, to mix broken ego-shells with their food, and to give
them brick partly covered with mortar, from some old building, to peck at.

Plan of Construction, and General Management. — The poultry-house
may be built of either brick or lath and plaster, or, as in some places, the
walls may be of plain boards, — but these generally make the houses too cold.
An economical poultry-house may be made of wooden posts and rails, with
the spaces between stuffed with fagots; but brick walls are generally pre-
ferred to all others, where the expense is not an object. The roof should
always be close and secure; and the floor may be of wood, or laid with
bricks or flag-stones, or it may be covered with a mixture of lime and clay,
rammed hard. Whatever the material be, the floor of a poultry-house
should always be a little higher than the level of the yard, to afford facilities
for keeping it clean. ‘The floor should be swept every day, and washed
once a week, and the walls of the house should be whitewashed inside every
spring, and every crevice carefully stopped. The doors are made of wood,
and should be strong, and be furnished with a lock, to prevent any danger
of the poultry being stolen at night; and there is generally a square hole cut
in the door, either at the top or bottom, for the poultry to go to roost. A
hole at the top of the door is preferable, as it is inaccessible to vermin ; and
there should be a Jadder on the outside, for the fowls to ascend. This ladder
is composed only of a slanting board, with strips of wood nailed across ; and,
when the hole in the door is at the bottom, a similar Jadder is placed inside
the house.

All fowls like to roost high, and they should, therefore, have some rails
fixed for them near the roof, so arranged that the fowls on the lower rails
inay not be exposed to the droppings from those above. The rails are fre-
quently only branches, or the trunks of young trees ; but if made of ti:nbers,
they should be nearly square, with only the corners rounded off; and there
may be boxes or baskets against the walls for the fowls to lay in. The best
kind of nests are said to be those’made of wood, baskets being calculated to
let in the cold air.

It is well known that fowls, when left to choose a nest for themselves,

46 * 2k

546 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

generally fix upon a hedge, where the hen buries herself from observation
under the branches of the hedge plants, and among the grass. This pecu-
liarity is taken advantage of by some poulterers, and the laying nests are
composed of heath or heather, and branches of hawthorn are trained over
and around them. The following figure represents one of these pleasant
and comfortable nests, with the hen sitting.

XII.— ARRANGEMENT OF THE FARMERY.

Situation. —The several buildings of the farm have now been noticed,
and we now come to consider the manner in which they are to be arranged
in the farmery. Asa whole, it may be considered with reference to its
situation on the farm; its extent and character relatively to the size of the
farm, and to the kind of culture pursued or crops raised; and its position
relatively to that of the farm-house.

For the economy of labor, the buildings of the farm should be situated as
near as possible to the centre of the cultivated grounds; for most of the
produce being, in the first place, conveyed to the farm buildings, and the
manure carried from them to the fields, it is important that the parts of
the farm should not be so distant from the farmery, that time shall be
wasted by the men and working cattle in traveling. A central situation
reduces the labor of carting home produce and carting out manure to the
smallest practicable.

But although a central situation of the farm buildings is as much as pos-
sible to be aimed at, it is often necessary or expedient to sacrifice this con-
venience, in order to secure others. A primary object, for instance, is the
obtaining of a sufficient command of water for domestic purposes, and the
use of the live stock ; but this cannot be obtaifed in every situation, and

——

ee ee

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 547

convenience of position, therefore, in the buildings, must often be sacrificed,
in order to obtain the necessary supplies of water. Sometimes water can
be procured in sufficient quantity by sinking wells; but it is always better
that it be obtained by a constant flow or current, that the stock of the farm
may be supplied at all times without the labor of pumping.

Kind of Buildings. —The size of the farmery, and the kind of buildings
which compose it, must necessarily be regulated by the size of the farm,
and the kind of culture pursued on it. It is to be observed, however, that
although on the smaller class of farms the same accommodation is not
required as on those of the larger kind, yet the buildings cannot be reduced in
proportion to the diminished size of the farm. Small farms, accordingly,
always require a greater comparative extent of accommodation than large.
On farms chiefly appropriated to the rearing of stock, comparatively few
buildings are required; and these being chiefly sheds for shelter to the
young cattle, and low sheds with yards for penning sheep when required.
On a farm situated near a large town, the buildings must always be suited
to this peculiarity of situation. Here the rearing and feeding of live stock
may not be carried on at all, and only the raising of vegetable produce for
sale be attended to. ‘The buildings required on such a farm need be few and
simple. No feeding and shelter sheds are required, and there is no need for
that extension of the range of buildings which is necessary on a rearing and
breeding farm.

Disposition of the Different Buildings. —The most convenient disposition
of the out-houses of a farm, suited to a mixed system of tillage and the rear-
ing and feeding of live stock, is in the form of a long rectangle, or a square,
as the case may be, open at one side, — generally at the south,—so as to
admit the air to the cattle in the yards, and allow sufficient sunshine to them
in winter. Sufficient space is to be appropriated to the several buildings and
yards of the farmery; for a few square yards more, occupied by the build-
ings, are of little value, compared with the inconvenience which results
from having them placed too closely together.

The farm-house itself sometimes forms part of the rectangle formed by the
farmery ; but it is better, in most cases, that it should be detached. It should
be placed on the south or open side of the farm-yard, and some of the win-
dows in the rear of the house should be so arranged that a full view of the
proceedings in the yard may be obtained from them.

In giving designs of the arrangement of the several parts of the tarmery,
little more can be done than to present useful examples. Although a certain
similarity must exist in the form ‘and arrangement in the parts of all such
buildings, yet these, it has been seen, must be modified according to the
circumstances of the farm itself, the nature of the soil, the situation with

548 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

regard to markets, and many other particulars. No rule that can be given is
of general application ; and the judgment of the architect or builder must ba
exercised in adapting the size, form, and arrangement of the buildings, to
the nature of the farm and the wants of the occupier.

In the designs which follow, uniformity has been studied wherever it
seemed to be practical, without interfering with convenience of arrangement ;
but when these qualities could not be combined, the preference has been
given to the latter ; and nothing has been proposed but what has been found,
from experience, to be useful and practicable. It may be remarked, how-
ever, that it is quite impossible, especially in the larger class of farm build-
ings, to get the different apartments arranged so conveniently as could be
wished, consistent with any degree of regularity. The number of designs
might be multiplied to any extent, but this is not at all necessary.

Plan of Buildings for a Farm of One Hundred and Fifty Acres. —'The
following is a ground-plan design of a farmery for a farm of one hundred and
fifty acres arable land. It contains a potato-house, a; house for storing a

supply of turnips or grass, B; two cow-honses, c, c ; calf-house, p ; house for
mare and foal, £; straw-barn, F; dressing-barn, c ; and machinery, H; gang-
way, or inclined plane to the corn-loft, 1; horse-course for the threshing-

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 549

machine, K; cart-shed, 1; hay-house, m; stables, N, N; spare-house, 0;
poultry-house, P; piggery, Q; and shelter-sheds, k, R, R; with yards,r,
r,r. This plan will afford all the accommodation that could be wished for
on a farm of the size for which it is intended

Plan of Buildings for a Small Farm.— The ground pian of the design of
a farmery for a small farm is shown in the annexed figure. In it are seen
‘a court for calves, a; poultry-house, B, open to the cow-house to partake

Ce
"ta

K i]

of its heat; calf-house, c; cow-house, p; calf-crib, £; cart-shed, Fr; stable,
6; barn, 4, part of which, 1, is to be lofted over ; potato-house, x ; piggery,
LL, and dung-pit, M.

The Stack-yard. — A situation for the stack-yard should be chosen adjoin-
ing the barn, and on the most elevated and exposed side of the farmery.
Its size is regulated by that of the arable part of the farm, and also by the size
of the barn; as the stacks are not to be made larger than what could be
contained at one time by the corn-bay, or end for unthreshed corn ; and, con-
sequently, a small barn will require a larger stack-yard than a large one.
The farm, in this case, as in almost every other yard or building of the
farmery, ought to be rectangular, and as near as may be convenient to that
ofa square. ‘The stacks are to be placed in parallel rows, with a sufficient
space between them for a cart to pass along, either to unload when building
the stack, or load when taking the cornto the barn. The stacks are to be
placed on stands, to keep dry and free from vermin.

Drainage of a Farmery.— The system of drainage in a farmery is a
matter of importance, and it ought to be determined on before any part of the
buildings is commenced. ‘There are three distinct systems of drainage
which must necessarily exist in every well-arranged farmery. First, it sel-
dom happens that the site for a farmery is so entirely dry as not to require

550 FANMER’S HAND-BOOK.

some underground drains around and through it, for carrying off the water,
that either sinks into the soil from the surface and is retained there, or is
found latent in the subsoil, or from some other cause. Second, the water
from the roofs of the buildings should be all collected by gutters at the
eaves, and, if not wanted for a well or tank, it should be conducted directly
to the underground drains, through air-traps. ‘Third, a liquid manure tank
is essential for retaining those parts of the manure which would otherwise
flow out of the yards and be lost; and with this the drains from the stables,
cattle-sheds, and yards, are to communicate. ‘These drains must be neither
large nor deep; and they may, in general, be formed of brick or stone,
with a trap near the opening of each, to prevent the possibility of a current
of air passing through them, and the offensive effluvia thereby occasioned.
The manure tank may be of very simple construction, the walls being built
of stone or brick, — or a large cask may be used. It should be covered at
the top, and in the covering there is to be a hole through which the end of
a pump may be inserted.

XIII. GREEN-HOUSES.

May be Easily Constructed. — Very handsome structures may be formed
by adopting the old mode of building. A house with the simple sloping
roof of wood-work may be made both light and airy, if not graceful, pro-
vided the moldings of the sashes are made very thin, and the slope of the
sashes laid at an angle of not less than 35°. Such a slope is, indeed, almost
indispensable, as, if the angle be less, the laps of the glasses are apt to
retain water, and cause a drip during rain.

Materials and Mode of Building. —It is astonishing at how trifling a
comparative expense a green-house or good glazed pit may be constructed,
provided there be a tact for works of masonry and carpentry on the part of
the farmer, or gardener, or florist, who wishes such a structure. A green-
house, whatever may be its materials and structure, — whether it be curvil
inear, and of metal or of wood, with a lean-to roof, or glazed on three of its
sides, so as to command a north, south, and eastern exposure, — ought to be
at least fifieen feet long, ten or twelve feet high at the, back or in the
centre, and its breadth not less. It should have a brick wall around it, of
nine inches in thickness, the height of which can only be determined by the
situation and form of the house; but it is recommended that the cellular
mode of laying the bricks be adopted, for a great saving of materials is
thereby not only insured, but a plate of air is interposed between two brick
surfaces, which tends to preserve uniformity of temperature, and some
degree of warmth, within the house. The bricks are laid on edge, two and
two, forming the front and back of the wall, with a third one, also on edge,

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 551

crossing the end of each pair. One course being thus finished, the course
above it is made to break joint with the one below, by laying each pair of
bricks so as their centres may rest upon the centres of the cross brick on
edge of the course below it. Bond is thus secured, and a space formed
between the pairs equal to the difference of the sum of the two bricks on
edge and the length of the one that crosses the ends of the two. Supposing
the length of a brick to be nine inches, and its thickness three inches, there
will be three inches of space left between the bricks. The alternate ranges
of the brick-work thus constructed will render the wall cellular, and strength
and lightness will be secured. Fig. 321 is a sketch of a portion of two
courses of a cellular wall, by which, if the one be supposed to rest upon the
other, it will be apparent that each joint alternates with the one below it,
and that the cells range throughout in a sidclong oblique direction.

Fig. 321.
6 ~ a3
c S| DF La ee
ase ot Fea Fe
Esa aes Fae
ip aad easel fea l
SS SF

In the upper part of the sketch (A), a, a, are two bricks set on edge,
forming the back and front of the wall c, c; 6, 6, are the two bricks also on
edge, set across the wall at the ends of a, a; d is the space between the
bricks, three inches in width. ‘The part represented by B is of exactly the
same construction as A; and if it were placed onc, c, so as the cross-edge
brick, e, were placed in the middle between the two cross-edge bricks, 4, 0,
then the interior of the wall would be of a cellular structure, all the spaces
of which would be connected together in a regularly zigzag oblique direc-
tion to one another.

Arrangement of the Lights. — The upright lights above the front walls
ought to swing on their centres, and not be made to slide horizontally, by
which much rain may be kept out, and the great inconvenience arising from
the swelling of the wood in the sash-grooves entirely obviated. A stage,
vr set of shelves, is generally required, ranging obliquely upwards, from
about eighteen inches above the floor towards the back wall, in a direction
nearly parallel to the slope of the glass roof. Another shelf, eighteen
inches wide, made of bars or strips of wood, may be placed immediately
under the swing-lights, against the front wall, for bulbous-rooted plants,
heaths, &c., the grating formed by the bars securing the roots frum the

552 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

bad consequences attending an excess of moisture ; since whatever quality
of water may run through the pots will fall through the spaces between the
bars, and escape. The walk, in this construction, will pass between this
front-sparred shelf and the lower shelf of the stage; it may also proceed
along the back wall, in which case the platform of shelves should be cur-
tailed in breadth, and a shelf or two fixed upon the back wall itself, for
succulent plants. In houses with double glass roofs, the stage ought to be
in the centre, ranging in two slopes, corresponding to those of the lights.

Flues for Heating. —'Vhe flues, or hot ‘vater pipes, must be so situated
as to distribute the heat equally. The circulation of hot water is most
likely to afford this equal distribution, because the temperature of a stream
uf water flowing frem a boiler, and returning ¢o it, in regular but slow pro-
gression, must be subject to comparatively little variation. Hot water also
produces a sweet and innoxious heat. Whenever, then, circumstances
authorize this mode of creating an artificial climate, it ought unquestionably
to be adopted ; but it requires some one who is somewhat acquainted with
this species of work, and with the power which radiating surfaces possess
of regulating the temperature of a given number of cubic feet of air.

A brick flue, when placed above the floor, being rather an unsightly
object, it may be advantageously placed under, or rather on a level with,
the floor. A flue, to command a pretty regular temperature, ought to enter
at one end of the house, not many inches within the front wall, proceed
along its whole extent, then take a turn and be brought back about the
centre of the floor, and finally be carried into a chimney above the back
wall at the same end of the house, though at an opposite corner, in which
the fire is situated. The flues are to be so built that air may circulate
around them; hence they must be placed in a channel dug in the ground,
and wholly free from contact with the ground. Exits for the heated air
must be provided for, either by gratings or by spaces left in the floor. The
temperature of the air in the green-house will thus be regulated from the
surface of the floor itself to the roof, without the inconveniences of an
incommodious mass of projecting brickwork.

A good flue has been calculated to heat between four and five thousand
cubic feet of air to a temperature sufficient for the safety of green-house
plants. Now, supposing the internal dimensions of a house to be as fol-
lows: height at the back, 12 feet, sloping to 6 feet at the front, the medium
being 9 feet ; breadth 12 feet, and length 24 feet; 24 & 12 X& 9 will pro-
duce the sum of 2592 feet, the volume of air to be warmed. If, then, the
calculation of 5000 feet be correct, there can be no difficulty in supporting
a sufficient degree of heat in a house of little more than half those dimen-
sions, by a flue of moderate capacity. This may be attained by building

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 553

the outside and inside of the first course along the front wall, with four bricks
laid flat-wise above each other upon the foundation or base course. These
four bricks will form the depth and the side of the flue, which, with the
mortar-joints, will be twelve inches in the clear ; and by setting the other
side of the flue seven inches apart from the first, there will be a channel of
eighty-four square inches in the clear, which will be found amply sufficient
for a flue. The return flue ought to be built of bricks on edge, but not wider
than the first, and both should be covered with flat stones. To secure the
full effect of the flue, the fireplace should be sunk one foot, or more, below
the entrance or mouth of the flue, so as to admit of a rise from the fire to
the flue. This rise should form the neck of the flue, and be brought to
assume somewhat the figure of a hopper. Thus, if the fireplace be eighteen
inches long, twelve inches wide, and as many deep, the neck ought to be so
contracted as that, at its entrance into the flue, it is not above half the
breadth of the fireplace, nor more than eight inches in depth. The flame
of the fuel ought to deliver itself clearly into the flue; and to do this, the
neck should not be much more than a foot in length, —the chief causes of
a bad draught and a smoky chimney arising from the il]-calculated dimen-
sions or shape of the neck. If the neck be short, and regularly contracted,
till it be about half the size of the flue into which it enters, rarefication of
the air will be secured; and if, with these precautions, a moderate rise be
provided, the rush of air will be great, which will render the draught secure
in almost every possible state of the atmosphere.

The flue being built, its joints rendered air-tight, a space, as was before
observed, must be left on each side of it, with openings in the pavement
for the free egress of the heated air. The base of the flue ought not to rest
on the ground, but upon bricks laid apart, so as to form openings through
which the air warmed by the bottom of the flue may pass into the channels
left on both sides. A flue thus constructed, and carefully built, will be so
efficient that very little fuel need be consumed; every particle of it will
have its effect, and the house will be pleasantly heated, without trouble, loss
of time, or vexatious expenditure.

XIV. FENCES AND GATES.
FENCES.

Different Kinds. —'The fences of the farm may consist either of stone
wall, or of line fence, or of a combination of the line fence and stone wall,
or of an open ditch, a mound, or a rail.

Building Stone Wall. — The stone wall may either be formed of stones,
ouilt without cement, or it may be built with mortar, like common masvnry ;
but the Jast of these methods is rarely practised with the coramon fences of a

554 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

farm The cementing of the stones with mortar adds, indeed, to the
durability of the wall, but then the expense is too great in common cases.
The wall. therefore, for the ordinary purposes of the farm, may generally be
built of stones alone, though sometimes with a little mortar merely for
cementing the capping, and occasionally for pinning or closing the inter-
stices of the outside.

Materials. —'The materials for building the dry stone wall, as this kind
of wall is termed, may be of any stones of sufficient durability. Loose
stones taken from the surface, termed land-stones, answer completely, if
they be of proper size, and not too much rounded; but in the latter case
they present too smooth a surface, and cannot be kept in their places without
mortar.

Implements. —'The implements to be used in building stone wall are, a
mason’s hammer, a spade or shovel for clearing the ground for a foundation,
a pick or mattock, and a frame of two upright posts fixed together, so as to
correspond with a vertical section of a portion of the wall. The line of the
intended fence being fixed upon and marked on the ground, the stones for
building should be brought forward, and laid down on both sides, if possi-
ble, of the line of fence, but, if not, on one side. Pins being fixed in the
centre of the space to be occupied by the wall, the workman proceeds thus:
— He carries his wooden frame to some distance along the line to be built
upon; he sets it perpendicular, which he is enabled to do by means of
a plumb-line attached to it, and he fixes it in this position in a simple
manner, as seen in the figure below. He then fixes another similar frame
at the place where the wall is to commence; he stretches two cords
between these two frames, on the outside, and as these cords correspond
with the outside of the wall at a given height, he has a guide for building
it of the required dimensions. After having built one portion, he uses only
one frame, — the wall itself serving afterwards the part of a frame, — for

Fig. 322.

a |}
= |W
N's i

TION EITAT
ARG i . ‘ i DTS Mt

NWS Nea i

the cords being fixed to both sides of the wall, and then attached to the
frame which is placed in advance, the workman has, as before, a guide by
which he proceeds in building.

Rules to be observed. —'The foundation of the wall should be laid on firm
ground; and wherever there is not this to build upon, a solid foundation

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 555

should be made by the spade. In building, the largest and flattest stones
should be used for the foundation ; and it is very desirable, if the materials
used will allow, to place stones at intervals, of sufficient size to lie across
the breadth of the wall, so as to bind the wall together, and render it
more secure.

Advantages of the Stone Wall. — The advantages of the stone wall, as
compared with the line fence, or hedge, are, that it becomes useful as soon
as made; that it can be formed in any situations, irrespective of soil and
climate ; that it requires no nursing, cleaning, and pruning; that it is not
injured or destroyed by the trespasses of animals, and that it occupies little
room

GATES.

Form and Method of Construction. — A necessary part of any kind of
fence is the gate. The properties of a good gate are that it shall combine
lightness with necessary strength, so that en equal quantity of materials
shall produce the strongest gate. The kind of gate which best combines
these conditions is one which consists of horizontal bars, placed at such a
distance from one another as to prevent the passage of animals, and so con-
nected as to be firmly bound together. The number of horizontal rails
should be five, although four may suffice, in low gates. They are mortised
into two upright bars, which form the ends of the gate. A diagonal bar
proceeds from the hinder and Jower corner of the gate to the upper bar. It
abuts upon the hinder upright, and on the upper horizontal bar, and is nailed
to the intervening ones. It may form an angle of about fortygjve degrees

Fig. 323.

with the hinder upright and lower bar, so that it may abut upon the upper
bar, at some distance from the fore-part of the gate. It forms, in this posi-
tion, a strut, — in the language of carpentry, — which is better than when
it forms a tie, according to the common practice ;— that is, when it extends

556 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

from the upper hinder corner to the lower bar of the gate. These parts
form the framing of the gate. It is usual, however, to nail two upright
braces to the gate. ‘hese are unnecessary for strength, and add to the
quantity of materials, and the number of joinings. The length of the gate
may be nine feet, the height of the upper bar three feet nine inches, and
the lower bar may be six inches from the ground. Fig. 323 describes a
gate constructed on these principles : — A and B are the upright bars; 1,2,
3, 4, 5, the horizontal bars, mortised into the former; pD, the diagonal strut,
abutting on the upright bar, B, and on the upper horizontal bar, 1, and nailed
to the other bars, 2, 3, 4, 5. '

Hanging. — The gate may be hung upon two hinges, or on one hinge,
—the hilt resting on a stone socket, placed in the ground, as shown in Fig.
323. This latter construction is somewhat the best for the ordinary gates
of the farm; for one of the most common defects of gates is the tendency to
sink down at the fore-part, and trail on the ground. Now, a gate, when we
consider its tendency to sink at tne fore-part, may be regarded as a bended
lever, of which the fulermn is the lower hinge, the power which prevents
its sinking the upper hinge, and the weight the centre of gravity of the
gate. By increasing the distance between the fulcrum and the upper hinge,
we increase the power of the latter to support the gate; and this condition
is fulfilled by placing the heel of the gate on the level of the ground. This
tendency to trail is also lessened by making the gate lighter before, which is
effected by giving the several bars a taper from the hinder to the anterior
part.

The Hintees.— The hinge of the gate is best formed by causing the upper
part — which is fixed to the upright bar of the gate — to work in a socket,
which is fixed to the gate-post. The advantage of making the upper hinge
work in a socket is, that while space is given to it to turn, it is firmly sup-
ported in its place, and that the means are afforded of causing it to move
smoothly, by pouring a little oil into the socket.

The Latch. —'The latch of the gate may be of various forms. The sim-
plest is a little chain, fixed to the front upright bar, which is fastened to a
hook in the gate-post.

Gatc-posts. — The gate-posts for the common gates of a farm are better
formed of wood than a pillar of masonry, —the latter being subject to be
loosened by carriages striking against it. The posts, if of wood, should be
well sunk in the ground ; and, as they are apt to decay at the surface of the
ground, the sunk portion, and a little above it, should be charred. The
bands of the hinges and latches should pass entirely through the posts, and
be fixe! on the opposite side by screw-nuts. The most durable kind of gate-

HEDGES. 557

post, however, is one of solid stone, which may be advantageously adopted
where the material can be easily obtained.

Self-shutting Gate. —It is, in many cases, deemed convenient to have
a gate which shall shut of itself, when opened. This may be effected by
simple means. The upper hinge may be of the kind before described ;
but the gate below must, in place of the hinge, have two points of support,
so that it shall only be in equilibrio when it rests upon these two points.

XV. HEDGES.

General Remarks.—For beauty, economy, and the protection of land
from intruders of all kinds, whether biped or quadruped, no kind of en-
closure can equal that furnished by a good hedge. These living walls
of verdure present a most striking effect, especially where the ground is
somewhat rolling, and relieve the monotony of cultivated fields, where
there are no forests to lend a coloring to the view. Their first cost is
probably a little more than that of a fence of the ordinary kind; but
when once completed, which is usually in about four or five years, the
expense ceases at once and forever, whereas the wooden fence or stone-

wall continually require repairs, and occasionally rebuilding. They are
absolutely impassable, when properly constructed: nothing in the form
47 *

258 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

of man, animal, or of the poultry kind, can either get through or go over
them; and they form an excellent shelter for cattle during the winter
season, while ranging the fields for exercise, or to pick up a few mouth-
fuls of green food.

Varieties of Hedge Plants.—The principal, and by some asserted to be
the only plant fit for hedges in the United States, is the osage-orange
(Maclura-auriantica ; illustrated in Fig. 324 as it appears on the farm
when nicely trimmed), which grows wild in Arkansas and Louisiana,
It is very full of branches, each of which is armed with numerous sharp
thorns. The trees are male and female, and the latter bears a round,
rough and greenish-colored fruit, somewhat like an orange, containing
about two hundred seeds. The wood is very tough and durable, and the
trees are very readily raised from seed, which will never fail to vegetate
in two or three weeks after planting. In the first season the seedlings
will grow to the height of two or three feet, when they may be set out
in the hedge rows, where the sets are usually placed from twelve to fif-
teen inches apart. The great merit of this plant consists, in‘the man-
ner in which it spreads its branches, and interlocks them, and in the
bristling array of spines with which they are armed. It never becomes
unmanageable on account of its size, and in four or five years will make
a good fence from the seed.

The Honey Locust ( Gleditschia triacanthos), (Fig. 325), is naturally a
large tree, beautiful in foliage, but armed with terrific thorns, which are

Fig. 325.

sometimes several inches long, of a reddish color, and, at some distance
from the base, armed with two secondary thorns, about half the size of
the first. The leaves are pinnated, and composed: of small, oval, serrate,
sessile leaflets, of a very pretty lightish green color. The flowers are

”?%

HEDGES. 559

small, disposed in bunches, and not very conspicuous. Flat, crooked,
pendulous pods, from twelve to eighteen inches long, contain the seeds,
which are brown, smooth, hard, and enveloped in a very sweet pulpy
substance. Its close, impenetrable mass of thorns and spray peculiarly
adapts it for hedging.

The Buffalo Berry (Shepardia magnoides), is a peculiar thorny plant,
found on the Rocky Mountains. It grows upright, and is armed with
thorns; and the leaves, which are small, have a delicate, silvery appear-
ance. It is male and female, and bears a fruit which, with a very rich
taste, combines a fine scarlet color, and has much of the appearance of
currants, hanging from the branches in similar bunches. Tarts and
preserves have been made from them, and pronounced excellent. It is
better adapted to garden than field fences.

The Buckthorn (Idhamnus catharticus), indigenous to the United States,
as also to Europe and Asia, is a hardy prickly shrub, the bark of which
is glossy and dark-colored. The leaves are ovate, dentated, with linear
stipules, and strong lateral nerves: the flowers, which are yellowish
green, give place to a glossy black berry, of the size of a large pepper-
corn, containing three or four seeds, enveloped in a violet-red pulp.
The juice of the unripe berries, boiled with a little alum, makes a
deep green dye. This shrub is very easily propagated from the seed,
and is much used as a hedge-plant in many of the Northern and Eastern
States.

The Cockspur (Crategus crusgalli), a native of the Middle States, is
a beautiful plant, having long, deep green, and highly-polished leaves,
with finely serrated margins. The thorns are very long, slender, and
tough; and the fruit, which is of a handsome golden yellow color, hangs
on the shrub all winter, giving it a beautiful appearance. It forms
an excellent hedge, and makes a gurgeous display during the winter
season.

The Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana), is sometimes used for hedges,
although it is simply an evergreen, and entirely destitute of prickles.
The wood is very odorous, and the leaves, when bruised, diffuse a resi-
nous aromatic odor. The seeds are small, ovate berries, bluish when
ripe, and coated with a whitish exudation. The plant grows readily
from the seed, may be set out in two years, and will furnish a shelter at
the end of three or four years. It will make a compact wall of verdure
from the very ground, and bears clipping remarkably well.

The Cranjero (Celtis cinerea), a very thorny shrub, growing in West-
ern Texas among the chapparal, would make an excellent hedge. Its
usual height is from six to ten feet, with numerous very rigid branches,

560 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

armed with short but strong spines. The leaves are about an inch
long, of an oval shape, and the flowers, which are polygamous, are
quite small, and in color greenish-white. It bears orange-yellow, oval
berries, the size of peas. As the plant grows in poor and stony soils, it
is presumable that it would thrive in almost any situation.

The Cactus Tuna (Fijo de Inferno), (Fig. 326), and the Cactus Opun-
tia (Fig. 327), are much used for hedges in Spain, where they are said

HEDGES. £61

to make a fence in two years which lasts for forty, and which, under
proper management, might be made perennial. It is objected that they
occupy considerable space, and that the trimmings will retain life and
grow even on dry ground; but these objections do not apply where land
is plenty, and lime in abundance, with which to compost the trimmings.
These plants make an impassable fence, and one which is easily planted
and kept in order.

The Mesquit (Algarobia glandulosa) often grows into a good-sized tree,
but can readily be kept within the proper size for a hedge by trimming.
Its foliage, which is very graceful, is not unlike that of the honey-locust,
and at the base of each compound leaf a pair of very sharp thorns is
usually produced.

The Zizyphus lycoides grows abundantly throughout Texas and New
Mexico. It is intricately branched; the leaves are oblong and entire;
the flowers are small, white, and grow in sessile clusters, giving place to
round, black, edible, but rather astringent berries; and the entire plant
usually attains a height of six or eight feet.

Emory’s Thorn (Holocantha Emoryi) is, like most of the Cactacez, a
thorny, leafless plant, growing in bunches, from five to eight feet high,
and bears tufts of very minute greenish-white flowers, which are suc-
ceeded by stellate reddish seed-vessels. It consists almost wholly of
thorns, which are very rigid, and average from two to four inches in
length. It is an ugly plant, but would form an impenetrable hedge.

Planting the Hedge. —If the sod is new, break it up in the fall, and
in spring plough it, throwing the furrows outward, so as to leave a broad
furrow in the middle, in the line of the intended hedge. If the ground
is rough, it must be very thoroughly harrowed at planting time, and
the earth, thrown into the centre by ploughing from both sides, must
be allowed to settle for a few days before planting the hedge, to prevent
subsequent exposure of the roots. As it is requisite, in order to have a
handsome-looking hedge, to plant the sets in a straight line, the ground
should be staked off at regular distances, and a cord run from one stake
to another as a guide. When the plants are ready, they may be set in
the ground with but little trouble, by inserting a spade to the depth of
five or six inches, close to the line, pressing it outward, and dropping
a plant into the hole thus made. The spade may then be withdrawn,
and inserted a short distance behind its first position, by which the
ground is pressed forward against the plant, thus fixing it firmly in
position. Some operators use a trowel, made for the purpose, but with-
out any positive advantage. “A double row, with the plants alternating,
is preferable to a single-row hedge. In no case should they be planted

562 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

nearer than ten inches asunder in the rows, and the rows should be at
least eight inches apart. Many of the hedge-plants will require to be
planted at even a greater distance from each other, or they will not
thrive.

First Year. — Keep the ground mellow, and clear of weeds. Throw a
furrow against the plants on each side, and subsequently plough from
them when weeds and grass spring up. Repeat this operation as often
as any obnoxious vegetation makes its appearance, and Jate in the autumn
plough two heavy furrows against the hedge on each side, to protect the
roots from the frost. Trim frequently during the summer, keeping the
shoots down within three or four inches of the ground. They will
thicken under this treatment, and will stand the winter better than if
allowed to run up to a height of several feet.

Second Year.— Replace all the plants which have died, setting them
carefully, so as to insure their successful growth. Cultivate as during
the first year. Cut the plants down to the ground in the spring with a
scythe, and in June trim all the vertical shoots down to four inches, but
allow the horizontal branches to extend as far as they will. <A thick
growth will follow, and thus will be established a good foundation for
the future hedge. Protect the plants from the frost by throwing a fur-
row against them, and leave them until the spring of the

Third Year.— Trim down the plants to within five inches of the last
cut, and cultivate as before. The hedge now being very wide, but little
vegetation will grow beneath it, consequently so much labor will not be
required in clearing out weeds. Prune again in June, within five inches
of the spring cutting, and trim the hedge in a pyramidal form, so as to

Fig. 328.

give it all the benefit of sun, air, and moisture. Trim again in August,
leaving six inches more of the new wood, and again in September. Fig.
328 represents a pair of Hedge-Shears.

Fourth Year. — The labor of this and all succeeding years will mainly
consist in keeping the hedge properly trimmed. Preserve the pyra- 4

| -

HEDGES. 563

midal form, as upon that depends the permanence of this living barrier;
and encourage the plants to grow vigorously by the application of some
well-rotted manure.

Replanting and Mending.— A ragged and uneven hedge should be cut
down at once, in the spring, nearly to a level with the ground, all the
stunted plants removed, and their places filled with good plants, which
must be set with great care. Clip all the hedge, with the exception of
the replants, two or three times during each year—thus giving the latter
a chance to attain a vigorous growth. Their places may be covered by
training strong shoots into them, and confining them there during the
growing season,

CHAPTER XII.

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
THE IMPROVED MODES OF GRAFTING — BUDDING — PRUNING — TRAINING.

I. GRAFTING.

Uses of Grafting. —'The uses of grafting, in addition to those of all the
other modes of increasing plants by extension, are, 1. The propagation of
varieties or species which are not increased freely by any other mode, such
as pears and other fruit-trees, &c. 2. The acceleration of the fructification
of plants, more especially of trees and shrubs, which are naturally a number
of years before they come into flower. For example, a seedling apple, if
grafted the second year on the extremities of the branches of a full-grown
apple-tree, or even on a stock or young tree of five or six years’ growth,
will show flowers the third or fourth year; whereas, had it remained on its
own roots, it would probably not have come into flower for several years
longer. 3. To increase the vigor or the hardiness of delicate species or
varieties, by grafting them on robust stocks. 4. To dwarf or diminish the
bulk of robust species, — such as grafting the pear on the quince or medlar,
the apple on the doucin or paradise stock, the cherry on the perfumed
cherry, &c. 5. To increase the fruitfulness or precocity of trees; the
effects produced on the growth and produce of a tree by grafting are similar
to those which occur when the descent of the sap is impeded by a ligature,
or by the destruction of a circle of bark. The disposition in young trees to
produce and nourish blossom buds and fruit is increased by this apparent
obstruction of the descending sap; and the fruit of such young trees ripens
somewhat earlier than upon other young trees of the same age, which grow
upon stocks of their own species; but the growth and vigor of the tree, and
its power to nourish a succession of heavy crops, are diminished, apparently,
by the stagnation in the branches and stock of a portion of that sap which,
in a tree growing upon its own stem, or upon a stock of its own species,
would descend to nourish and promote the extension of the roots. 6. To
preserve varieties from degenerating, which are found to do so when propa-
gated by cuttings or layers. 7. By choosing a stock suitable to the soil, to

produce trees in situations where they could not be grown if on their own
(564)

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 565

roots. 8. To introduce several kinds on one kind. Thus, one apple or
pear tree may be made to produce many different kinds. 9. To renew the
heads of trees. Thus, if a fruit-tree is cut down to the ground, or headed
in to the height of ten or twelve feet, and left to itself, it will develop a
great number of latent buds, each of which will be contending for the mas-
tery ; and the strength of the tree, and the most favorable part of the season
for growth, will be in some degree wasted, before a shoot is singled out te
take the lead; but, if a graft is inserted either in the collar or stool, or in
the amputated head, it will give an immediate direction to the sap, the
latent buds will not be excited, and the whole concentrated vigor of the tree
will be exerted in the production of one grand shoot.

Different Kinds of Grafting. —'The different kinds of grafting may be
classed as, grafting by detached scions or cuttings, which is the most com-
mon mode; grafting by attached scions, or, as it is commonly termed, by
approach or inarching, in which the scion, when put on the stock, is not at
all, or is only partially, separated from the parent plant; and grafting by
buds, in which the scion consists of a plate of bark, containing one or more
buds. The stock on which the scion is placed is, in every case, a rooted
plant, generally standing in its place in the garden or nursery, but some-
times, in the case of grafting by detached scions, taken up and kept under
cover, while the operation is being performed. ‘The two first modes of
grafting are performed when the sap is rising, in spring; and budding
chiefly when it is descending, in July and August. Under particular
circumstances, however, and with care, grafting in every form may be per-
formed at any reasonable period of the year.

Utensils and Materials used in Grafting. — These are, the common knife, for
heading down stocks ; the chisel ; the grafting-knife and budding-knife ; liga-
tures of different kinds for tying on the scions, and grafting-clay or grafting-wax
for covering them. The following cut represents one of the best grafting-

Fig. 329.

chisels now in use. The ligatures in common use are strands of bast matting,

or of other flexible bark ; but sometimes coarse worsted thread is used, or oc-

casionally shreds of coarse paper, or cotton cloth, covered with grafting-wax.

When bast mat is used, it may be rendered water-proof by passing it first

through a solution of white soap, and next through one of alum; by which
48

566 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

a neutral compound is formed, insoluble in water. ‘These prepared shreds,
before being put on, are softened, by holding them over a small vessel of
burning charcoal, which the grafter carries with him; and when grafiing-
wax is employed, instead of grafting-clay, it is kept in an earthen pot, also
placed over live charcoal, and the composition taken out and laid on with the
brush. There are compositions, however, which become soft by the heat of
the hand, or by breathing on them.

Grafting-clay is prepared by mixing clay of any kind, or clayey loam,
fresh horse or cow dung, free from litter, in the proportion of three parts in
oulk of clay to one of dung, and adding a small portion of hay, not, how-
ever, cut into too short lengths, its use being analogous to that of hair in
plaster. The whole is thoroughly mixed together, and beaten up with water,
s0 as to be of a suitable consistency and ductility for putting on with the
hands, and for remaining on, in wet weather and dry weather, without
cracking. The beating is performed with a beetle or rammer, on a smooth,
hard floor, under cover, turning over the mass, and adding water, and then
beating afresh, till it becomes sufficiently softened and ductile. The process
of beating must be repeated two or three times a day, for several days; and
it should be completed from three weeks to a month before the clay is
wanted, care being taken to preserve it in a moist state, by covering it with
mats or straw. The grafting-clay used by the French gardeners is composed
of equal parts of cow-dung, free from litter, and fresh loam, thoroughly
beaten up and incorporated.

Grafting-wax is used by many instead of grafting-clay. There are
various recipes for composing it, but they may all be reduced to two kinds.
1. Those which, being melted, are laid on the graft, in a fluid and hot state,
with a brush. 2. Those which are previously spread on pieces of coarse
cotton, or brown paper, and afterwards wrapped round the grafter in the
same manner as strands of matting. The common composition for the first
kind is one pound of cow-dung, half a pound of pitch, and half a pound of
yellow wax, boiled up together, and heated, when wanted, in a small earthen
pot. For the second kind, equal parts of turpentine, bees-wax, and resin, are
melted together.

Grafting by Detached Scions. — This is the most common mode, and it is
that most generally used for kernel-fruits, and the hardier forest-trees. The
time for grafting hardy trees and shrubs by detached scions in England is
generally in spring, when the sap is rising; but the vine, if grafted before it
is in leaf, suffers from bleeding. In this country, grafting is frequently
performed in the winter time on roots or stocks which have been preserved
in sheds or cellars; and the scion being put on and tied and csayed over, the
gratted stock is kept till the spring, and then taken out and planted. Plants

+
™= ‘ae

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 567

vuder glass may be grafted at almost any period ; and herbaceous grafting,
when and wherever performed, can, of course, only succeed when the shoots
of the scion and stock are in a succulent or herbaceous state. In all the
different modes of grafting by detached scions, success is rendered more
certain when the sap of the stock is in a more advanced and vigorous state
than that of the scion; for which purpose the scions are generally taken off
in autumn, and their vegetation retarded by keeping them in a shady place
till spring ; and the stock is cut over a little above the part where the scion
is to be put on, a week or two before grafting takes place. The manual
precautions necessary to success are —to fit the scion to the stock in such a
manner that the union of their inner barks, and consequently of their albur-
nums (sap), may be as close as possible ; to cut the scion in such a manner
as that there shall be a bud or joint at its lower extremity, and the stock so
that there shall be a bud or joint at its upper extremity ; to maintain the
scion and the stock in the proper position for growth, and in close contact,
by a bandage of narrow shreds of matting or cloth ; to exclude the air by a
covering of clay or grafting-wax, and, in addition, when the graft is close
to the surface of the ground, by earthing it up with soil, and when the scion
is making its shoot, to tie it to a prop, if necessary ; to remove the clay or
grafting-wax, when the scion has made several leaves; to remove the
bandage by degrees, when it appears to be no longer necessary ; and to cut
off the heel on the upper part of the stock at the proper time, so as that it
may, if possible, be healed over the same season. ‘The modes of grafting
detached scions adapted for genera] use are—splice or whip grafting, cleft
grafting, rind grafting, saddle grafting, side grafting, root grafting and
herbaceous grafting.

Splice Grafting. —Splice, tongue, or whip grafting, is the mode most
commonly adopted in all gardens where the stocks are not much larger in
diameter than the scion; and it has the advantage of being more expedi-
tiously performed than any of the other modes described. The stock is first
cut over at the height at which the scion is to be put on, a (Fig. 330), and
a thin slice of the bark and wood is then cut off with a very sharp knife, so
as to leave a perfectly smooth, even surface, 6; the scion, which should at
least have three buds, and need never have more than five (the top one for a
leading shoot, the next two for side shoots, in the case of fruit-trees, and the
lower two to aid in uniting the scion to the stock), is next cut, so as to fit
the prepared part of the stock as accurately as possible, at least on one side ;
then a slit or tongue, as it is technically termed, is made on the scion, and a
corresponding one in the stock, c. All being prepared, the scion is applied
to the stock, inserting the tongue of the one into the slit of the other, c; then
the scion is tied on with matting, d; and lastly it is clayed over, e; and

568 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

sometimes, in addition, it is earthed up, or covered with moss, to serve as a
non-conductor of heat and moisture. In earthing up the graft, the loose

Fig. 330.

surface soil should be used at the grafting season, as being drier and warmer
than that which is less under the immediate influence of the sun. When the
scion is placed on the stock with the right hand, the ribbon of bast, by which
it is tied, is brought round the graft from right to left; but when the scion
is put on by the left hand, the bast is brought round from left to right; the
object in both cases being to make sure of the exaet coincidence of the inner
bark of one side of the scion with the inner bark of one side of the stock.
The ball of clay which envelops the graft should be about an inch thick on
every side, and should extend for nearly an inch below the bottom of the
graft, to more than an inch over the top of the stock, compressing and
finishing the whole into a kind of oval or egg-shape form, closing it in every
part, so as completely to exclude air, light, wet or cold. The ball of clay
will not be so apt to drop off, if the matting over which it is placed is ren-
dered a fitting nucleus for solid clay, by previously smearing it over in a
comparatively liquid state. This envelope of clay, with the earthing up,
preserves the graft in a uniform temperature, and prevents the rising of the
sap from being checked by cold days or nights; and, therefore, earthing up
ought always to be adopted, in the case of grafts in the open garden, which
are difficult to succeed. When the scion and the stock are both of the same
thickness, or when they are of kinds which do not unite freely, the tongue
is sometimes omitted ; but in that case more care is required in tying. In
this, and also in other cases, the stock is not shortened down to the graft,
but an inch or two, with a bud at its upper extremity, is left to insure the
rising of the sap to the scion; and after the latter is firmly established, the
part of the stock left is cut off close above the scion. When the stock is not

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 569

neaded down till the scion is about to be put on, it is essentially necessary
to leave it longer than usual, in order to give vent to the rising sap, which
might otherwise exude about the scion, and occasion its decay.

Splice Grafting the Peach, Nectarine, Apricot, §c.—In splice grafting the
shoots of peaches, nectarines, and apricots, and other tender shoots with
large pith, it is found of advantage to have a quarter of an inch of two-years-
old wood at the lower extremity of the scion, and to have the steck cut
with a dove-tail notch. In the case of the fruit-trees mentioned, the buds of
the scion on the back and front are removed, leaving two on each side, and a
leader ; and when these have grown six or eight inches, their extremities
are pinched off with the finger and thumb, by which means each shoot will
throw out two others, and thus produce in autumn a finely-shaped tree, with
ten branches. Such trees will bear two or three fruits the second year from
the graft.

Cleft Grafting. —This requires less care than splice grafting, and is
chiefly adopted when the scion is a good deal larger than the stock, and
more especially when grafting stocks of considerable height, or heading
down old trees. The head of the stock being eut over horizontally with a
saw, a cleft is made in it, from two to three inches in length, with a stout
knife or chisel, or with the splitting-knife. The cleft being kept open by
the knife or chisel, or the pick end of the splitting-knife, one or two scions
are inserted, according to the diameter of the stock ; the scions being cut
into long wedge-shapes, in a double sense, and inserted into the slit prepared
for them, when the knife or chisel being withdrawn, the stock closes firmly
upon the scions, and holds them fast. The graft is then tied and clayed in
the usual manner, and the whole is frequently covered with moss, or some
similar substance. When the stock is an inch or more in diameter, three
or more scions are frequently put on at equal distances from each other
round the circumference, and this is called crown grafting. Cleft grafting
with one scion is in general not a good mode, because, if the split has been
made right through the stock, it is in danger of being injured by the weather
before it is covered with wood by the scion. If the cleft is made only on
one side of the stock, the evil is mitigated ; but there still remains the ten-
dency of the scion in its growth to protrude the wood all on one side. In
crown grafting headed-down old trees, the scion is generally chosen of two-
years-old wood, and it is sometimes inserted between the inner bark and the
alburnum, as in what is called —

Rind Grafting. —In this, great care must be taken to open the bark of
the stock, without bruising it, which is done by the spatula end of the graft-
ing-knife. The scion is prepared without a tongue, and inserted so that its

wood may be in contact with the sap of the stock. As in this case both
48 *

570 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

edges of the alburnum of the scion come in close contact with the alburnum
of the stock, the chances of success, other circumstances being alike, are
increased. In cases of this kind, also, a Jongitudinal notch is sometimes cut
out, instead of a slit, and the scion cut to correspond. Sometimes, also, the
sciun is prepared with a shoulder, more especially when it consists of two-
years-old wood ; and this mode is termed shoulder grafting.

Cleft Grafting the Vine.— This operation is shown in the annexed cut,
in which a is a.bud on the scion, and 6 one on the stock, both in the most

Fig. 331.

favorable positions for success. The graft is tied and clayed in the usual
manner, excepting that only a small hole is left in the clay opposite the eye
of the scion, for its development. In grafting the vine in this manner,
when the bud 6 on the stock is developed, it is allowed to grow for ten or
fourteen days, after which it is cut off, leaving only one bud and one leaf
near its base to draw up sap to the scion till it be fairly united to the stock.
The time of grafting is when the stock is about to break into leaf, or when
they have made shoots with four or five leaves. By this time the sap has
begun to flow freely, so that there is no danger of the stock suffering from
bleeding ; though, if vines are in good health, and their wood thoroughly
ripened, all the bleeding that usually takes place does little injury.

Saddle Grafting. —This is only applicable to stocks of moderate size,
but it is well adapted for standard fruit-trees. The top of the stock is cut
into a wedge-shape, and the scion is split up the middle, and placed astride
on it, the inner barks being made to join on one side of the stock, as in cleft
grafting. The tying, claying, &c., are of course performed in the usual
manner.

Side Grafting. — This is nothing more than splice grafting performed on
the side of a stock, the head of which is not cut off. It is sometimes prac-
tised on fruit-trees to supply a branch in a vacancy, or for the sake of having

a
nll
;

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 571

different kinds of fruits on the same tree; but it is better for the latter pur-
pose to graft on the side-branches, because, in consequence of the flow of the
sap not being interrupted by being headed down, the success of this kind of
grafting is more uncertain than almost any other mode. In grafting the
lateral branches of fruit-trees, it is always desirable, in order to insure suc-
cess, to have corresponding buds in the scion and the stock.

Wedge Grafting. — This is simply a modification of side grafting.

Root Grafting. — Root grafting is merely the union of a scion to a root,
instead of toa stem. It is sometimes practised in nurseries, by grafting the
apple and the pear on the roots of thorns, tree peonies on herbaceous peonies,
&c.

Herbaceous Grafting. —This is applicable either to the solid parts of
herbaceous plants, or to the branches of ligneous or woody plants, when
they are in an herbaceous state. By this method the melon has been grafted
on the cucumber, the tomato on the common potato, the cauliflower on the
broccoli and the borecole, &c. To do this, choose a vigorous part of a
shoot having a well-developed leaf. In the axil of this leaf an oblique cut
is made, of half its thickness. ‘The point of a melon shoot, so far developed
as to have its fruit quite formed, is then cut off, and pointed at its end, two
inches below the fruit. It is inserted in the cleft made in the stock, always
taking care to spare the leaf until the scion has taken. The remaining part
of the operation is performed with ligatures and grafting-wax. ~

Grafting by Approach, or Inarching. —'This differs from grafting by
detached scions, in the scion or shoot not being separated from the plant to
which it belongs, and by which it is nourished, till a union takes place. For
this purpose, it is necessary that the two plants which are to form the scion
and stock be planted, or, if in pots, placed adjoining each other, so that a
branch of the one may be easily brought into close contact with the stem, or
with a branch, of the other. A disk of bark and alburnum is then removed
from each at the intended point of union, and the parts being properly fitted
to each other, so as the inner barks of the respective subjects may coincide,
as in the case of grafting by detached scions, they are bandaged and covered
with clay or grafting-wax. This being done, in a short time, in con-
sequence of the development of the secretion called cambium, the alburnum
of the scion and that of the stock become united, and the scion may be cut
off below the point where it is united with the stock, leaving the former to
be nourished only by the latter.

The principal use of grafting by approach is to propagate plants of rarity
and value which it is found difficult to increase by any other means, and of
which it is not desirable to risk the loss of any part, by attempting an in-
crease by means of detached scions or cuttings.

572 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Il. BUDDING.

Uses of Budding. — Budding, or grafting by detached buds, consists in
transferring a portion of bark containing one or more buds, and forming the
scion, to the wood of another plant, forming the stock, a portion of the bark
of the stock being raised up or taken off to receive the scion. The buds of
trees are originated in the young shoots in the axils of the leaves, and when
the bud begins to grow, its connection with the marrow sheath ceases ; or,
at all events, the bud, if detached and properly placed on the alburnum of
another plant, will become vitally united to it. On these facts the art of
budding is founded.

This mode of grafting is chiefly applicable to woody vegetation, and the
scion may, in general, be secured to the stock, and sufficiently protected
there, by bandages of bast mat, or thread, without the use of grafting-clay
or wax. The union between the scion and the stock takes place, in the first
instance, in consequence of the exudation of organizable matter from the soft
wood of the stock ; and it is rendered permanent by the returning sap from
the leaves of the stock, or from those of the shoot made by the bud. All
the different modes of budding may be reduced to two ;— shield budding,
in which the scion is a piece of bark, commonly in the shape of a shield,
containing a single bud, —and flute budding, in which the scion consists of
a ring or tube of bark, containing several buds. In both modes, the bark of
one year is chosen in preference ; and the operation is more certain of suc-
cess when the bud of the scion is placed exactly over the situation of a bud
on the stock. The shield may, however, be placed on the internodes, or a
piece of bark without buds may be put on as a scion, and yet a vital union
may take place between the parts, because the marrow rays exist every-
where in the wood, and it is by them, during the process of organization,
that the layer of wood of one year, in a growing state, is joined to that of the
year before. When the bud is placed on the stock, its point is almost
always made to turn upwards, as being its natural position ; but, in budding
trees which are liable to gum, the bud is made to point downwards. There
are two seasons at which budding is practised, namely, when the sap rises
in spring; when the bud inserted is developed immediately, in the same
manner as in detached ligneous scions; and in the end of summer, when
the sap is descending, the operation being then performed with a bud formed
during the preceding summer, which does not develop itself till the follow-
ing spring. In budding, the stock is not generally cut over in the first
instance, as in grafting by detached ligneous scions, but a tight ligature is
frequently placed above the graft, with the intention of forcing a part of the
ascending sap to nourish the graft.

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 573

The uses of budding, in addition to those of the other modes of grafting,
are, also, to propagate some kinds with which the other modes of grafting
are not so successful; to perform the operation of grafting with greater
rapidity than with detached scions, or inarching, as in the case of most fiuit-
trees, to unite early vegetating trees with late vegetating ones, — as the
apricot with the plum, they being both in the same degree of vegetation
during the budding season; to graft without the risk of injuring the stock
in case of want of success, as in side budding, and in flute budding, without
heading down; to introduce a number of species or varieties on the same
stem, which could not be done by any other mode of grafting without dis-
figuring the stock, in the event of the want of success ; to prove the blossoms
or fruits of any tree, in which case blossom-buds are chosen instead of leaf-
buds; and finally, as the easiest mode of distributing a great many kinds
on the branches of a tree, as in the case of roses, camellias, and fruit-trees.

Performing the Operation. —In performing the operation, mild, cloudy
weather should be chosen, because, during hot, dry, windy weather, the
viscous surfaces exposed to the air are speedily dried by evaporation, by
which the healing operation is retarded ; besides, the bark never rises so
well as it does in weather which is still, warm, and cloudy, but without
rain. The first step is to ascertain that the bark of the scion and that of the
stock will separate freely from the wood beneath them; then procure the
cutting from which the shields or tubes of bark are to be taken. If the
budding is to be performed in spring, the cuttings from which the buds are
to be taken should be cut — always using the proper kind of knife — from
the tree the preceding autumn, and kept through the winter, by burying
their lower ends in the ground, in a cool, shady situation, as in the case of
grafting by detached scions. When these cuttings are to be used, their
lower ends should be placed in water, to keep them fresh while the opera-
tion of cutting shields or rings from them is going on. If, on the other
hand, the budding is to be performed in summer, then the cutting from
which the buds are to be taken is not to be cut off the parent tree till just
before the operation is to be performed. The cutting should be a shoot of
the current year’s wood, which has done growing, or nearly so, and its
leaves should be cut off, to prevent the waste of sap by evaporation, as soon
as it is taken from the tree ; the end of the cutting should then be put in
water to keep it fresh, and the buds taken off as wanted. When the leaves
are cut off, care should be taken to leave part of the petiole of each, to
handle the shield or ring by when putting it on the stock. A slit is next
made in the stock, or a ring of bark taken off; and the shield or ring from
the cutting, containing a bud or buds which are ripe or nearly so, is intro-
duced in the manner which will presently be described. ‘Tying the bud on

574 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the stock generally completes the operation, though sometimes grafting. wax
is employed to cover the junction of the shield or ring.

Transmitting Scions. — Scions for budding may be sent a considerable
distance by letter, if the leaves are cut off and the scion closely wrapped up
in oiled paper, or coated over with mastic. They may also be left for
several weeks, by immersing them in honey. When bulk is not an objec-
tion, they may be packed up in long grass, or in moist moss, or in several
folds of moistened brown paper, and covered with drawn wheat-straw, to
serve as a non-conductor of heat and moisture.

Wax for Budding. — Prepared wax for budding may be composed of
turpentine, bees-wax, resin, and a little tallow, melted together. It may
be put on in the same manner as grafting-clay, but should not be more than
a quarter of an inch in thickness; or it may be very thinly spread on cotton
cloth, and used in shreds, like sticking-plaster. In this last state, it serves
both as a ligature for retaining the scion in its place, and as a covering for
excluding the air. In very delicate budding or grafting, fine moss or cotton
wool is frequently used as a substitute for grafting-clay or grafting-wax,
the moss or cotton being tied firmly on with coarse thread or fine strands of
bast matting. Plastic wax, or grafting-wax, which the heat of the hand,
or breathing on, will render sufficiently soft for use, is thus prepared : —
take common sealing-wax, — of any color, except green, — one part; mut-
ton fat, one part; white wax, one part; and honey, one eighth of a part.
The white wax and the fat are to be first melted, and then the sealing-wax
is to be added gradually, in small pieces, — the mixture being kept con-
stantly stirred ; — and lastly, the honey must be put in just before taking it
off the fire. It should be poured hot into paper or tin moulds, and kept
slightly agitated till it begins to congeal.

Shield Budding. — This is about the only mode in use in British
nurseries, where it is generally performed in July or August. A cross cut
and slit are made in the stock, in the form of the letter T, and if possible
through abud. (Fig.332,a.) From a shoot of the present year deprived of
its leaves, a slice of bark and wood, containing a bud, 4, is then cut out, and
the wood is removed from the slice by the point of the knife. This is done
by holding the shield by the remains of the leaf, with one hand, and enter-
ing the point of the knife at the under extremity of the shield, and between
it and the thumb; and then raising and drawing out the wood by a double
motion outwards from the bark, and downwards from the upper to the lower
extremity of the shield. The bud being now prepared, as at c, the bark on
each side of the slit in the stock is raised up by the spatula end of the
budding-knife, and the shield inserted beneath it; its upper part being cut
straight across, as at d, so as to admit of its joining accurately with the

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 575

inner bark of the stock, as at e, so as to receive its descending sap. A
bandage cf soft matting is now applied, so as to exclude the air from the
wounded parts, and to show only the bud and the petiole, as at f, and the

Fig. 332.

operation is complete. At f, the bud is shown developing its leaves, and
at g it has produced a shoot of some length, which is tied for a short time
to the upper part of the stock ; but that part of the latter which is shown by
dotted lines is cut off in July.

The portion of wood left attached to the base of the bud should generally
be about a third of the length of the shield ; the latter being from an inch to
an inch and a half in length, and the eye should be situated about a third
from the top. Spines, prickles, and leaves should be carefully cut off, or
shortened. Sometimes, in taking out the splinter of wood from the scion,
which is done with a quick, jerking motion, the base of the bud, which is
woody, is torn out also, leaving a smal] cavity, instead of an even surface ;
the surface, when the bud is in a proper state, being either quite even, or
only gently raised above the surrounding bark, in consequence of the woody
base of the bud being left in. When this latter has been torn out, so as to
leave a cavity, it is safest not to use the bud, but to prepare another ;
though, when the cavity left is not very deep, and a small portion of wood
is seen in it, the bud will sometimes grow. Only those buds must be taken
from the scion that are nearly mature, which is readily known both by the
size of the bud and by the full expansion and firm texture of the disk of the
leaf, in the axil of which it grows.

Shield Budding without a Bud or Eye. — This is used simply to cover a
wound or blemish in one tree by a portion of the live bark of another.

Circular Shield Budding.— Budding with a circular shield, with a portion
of wood attarhed, is employed to equalize the flower-buds over a tree, by

576 FARMER’S HAND-BOOR.

removing some from places where there are too many to other places in
which there are too few. With the point of a penknife, in spring, cut a
small cone of bark and wood containing a bud, and insert it in an orifice
made in the same manner, securing the edges with grafting-wax. Budding
with a shield stamped out hy a punch is considered excellent for budding old
trees, the thick and rugged bark of which is not suitable for being taken
off with the budding-knife. With a mallet the punch is driven through the
bark of the scion, and then through that of the steck, and the piece which
comes out of the former is inserted in the cavity formed by the piece taken
out of the jatter. Shreld budding with a terminal bud is supposed to produce
a more vigorous shoot than when a lateral eye is used, and it is, therefore,
recommended for supplying a leader to a shoot that has lost one.

Flute Budding.— There are several modifications of this mode of budding,
which is a good deal used, in some countries, for trees that are difficult to
take, — such as the walnut and the chestnut, — and for several oaks, as
well as for the white mulberry.

Annular Budding. — This is performed either at the principal movement
of the sap in spring, or at the end of its principal movement in August. In |
either case, the top of the stock is kept on; and if the ring of bark contain-
ing a bud or buds taken from the scion is larger than the space prepared for
it on the stock, a piece must be taken from it longitudinally, so as to make
it fit exactly.

After-care. — The after-care of grafts by budding consists, in all cases, in
removing the bandages or plasters as soon as it is ascertained that the buds
or scions have adhered to the stock. ‘This may generally be known in two
or three weeks, by the healthy appearance of the bark and its bud or buds,
and by the dropping off of the petiole, which, in the case of the bud, withers
and adheres. ‘The next operation is to head down the stock to within an
inch or two of the bud, — the stump being left for a week or two as a prop,
to which the shoot produced by the bud of the scion may be tied, till it
acquires vigor enough to support itself. The stump is then cut off in a
sloping direction, close above the bud. In general, any buds which develop
themselves on this stump should be rubbed off ; but in the case of very weak
scions, one or more buds may be left on the stump, to draw up the sap till
the graft has taken. When budding is performed in spring, the stock
should have been headed down before the ascent of the sap; but in autumn
budding, as no shoot is produced till the spring following, heading down is
deferred till that season, and takes place just before the sap is in motion.
Where a number of grafts by buds are introduced on one stem or on one
branch, heading down can, of course, only take pace above the uppermost

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 577

bud ; and m terminal flute budding, it is performed as a necessary part of
the operation.

III. PRUNING.

Uses of Pruning. — Pruning consists in depriving a plant of a portion
of its branches, buds, leaves, bark, or roots, in order to produce particular
effects on the part of the plant which remains. The different kinds of
pruning may be included under knife-pruning, which is applied to small
branches ; lopping, which is applied to large branches; clipping, which is
applied to small shoots in masses; and disbudding, disleafing, and disbark-
ing, which are applied to buds, leaves and bark. Girdling and felling may
also be included. The instruments necessary for these operations are
chiefly the pruning-knife, the bill, the saw, the cutting-shears, and the clip-
ping-shears ; but there are some other instruments, such as the pruning-
chisel, the girdling-machine, &c., which are occasionally used for peculiar
purposes. The approved pattern of pruning chisels is-seen in the follow-
ing cut.

Pruning Forest-trees.—In forest-trees pruning is of the greatest use in
modifying the quantity of timber produced. Thus, by commencing when
the tree is quite young, and shortening the side-branches and encouraging
the leading shoot, the whole of the timber produced is thrown into the main
stem. On the other hand, should crooked timber be desired, pruning by
destroying the leading shoot, and encouraging those that have a suitable
direction, tend to attain the end in view; and, by the aid of training, this
end can be completely effected. ‘Trees which are stunted in their growth,
from being hide-bound (a disease which is brought on by the sudden exposure
of the trees to the weather after they have been drawn up by shelter, and,
in the case of young trees, by being planted of too large a size in proportion
to their roots), may in general be made to shoot vigorously by being cut
down or headed in. Again, trees which are in particular situations, where
it is feared they will grow too large, may be arrested in their growth, or
stunted, by amputating the larger roots.

Pruning Ornamental Trees.— This is chiefly employed to remove dis-
eased branches, because much of the effect of these trees depends on the
development of their natural form and character.

Pruning Ornamental Shrubs. — Those which are grown for their flowers
produce them of much stronger and brighter colors when the shoots are

49 2M

578 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

thinned out, or shortened, or both; and it is useful when the plante are
prevented from exhausting themselves by the removal of decaying blossoms,
80 as to prevent them from maturing their seeds. A pair of pruning-scis-
sors are useful in case of rose-bushes, &c.

Pruning Fruit-trees and Shrubs.— These, above all other plants, are
benefited by pruning, which is indeed by far the most important part of
their culture. The most general object of pruning is to create an abundant
supply of sap during summer, by the production of leaf-shoots, by which the
general strength of the tree is augmented, and to limit the distribution of
this sap when it ascends from the roots in the following spring, by dimin-
ishing the number of buds. The effect of this is to increase the vigor of

the shoots or fruits produced by these buds; and if this be done in such a
manner as to obtain also the greatest advantages from light and air, the
pruning will have answered its purpose. If a fruit-tree were not deprived

every year of a part of the wood or the buds which it produces, its shoots-

and fruits would gradually diminish in size, and though the fruit would be

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 579

more numerous, it would be deficient in succulence and flavor, as is found
to be the case in old neglected orchard-trees. The application of pruning
to fruit-trees differs so much, according to the species of tree, that the sub-
ject can only be properly treated by taking each class separately. Thus
kernel-fruits, which are produced on wood of two or more years’ growth,
require to be pruned in a different manner from such fruits as the peach,
avhich is produced from the shoots of the current year. ‘The production of
blossoms, or the enlargement of fruits and the acceleration of their maturity
by ringing, is a species of pruning peculiarly applicable to fruit-trees. In
pruning high branches, an instrument called an avarrancator — pole pruning
shears — is found to be very convenient. See Fig. 339.

Pruning Herbaceous Plants.—'To herbaceous plants pruning is appli-
cable, not only when they are being transplanted, when both roots and top
are frequently cut in, but also to fruit-bearing kinds, such as the melon
tribe, the tomato, &c. It is even useful to the cabbage tribe, when it is
wished that, after the head is cut off, the stem should throw out sprouts,
which is found to be accelerated by splitting it down an inch or two. The
topping of beans, and the picking off of potato-blossoms, are operations
belonging to pruning, as are the cutting off of withered flowers for the
sake of neatness, &c.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF PRUNING.

These may be included under close pruning, shortening-in, fore-shorten-
ing, spurring-in, heading-in, lopping, snag-lopping, lopping-in, stopping,
pinching-out, disbarking, disbudding, disleafing, slitting, bruising or tear-
ing, root-pruning, girdling, and felling.

Close Pruning. — This consists in cutting off shoots close to the branch
or stem from whence they spring, leaving as small a section as possible, in
order that it may be speedily healed over. In performing the operation,
care should be taken to make the wounded section no larger than the base
of the shoot, in order that it may be healed over as quickly as possible ; and
at the same time to make it no smaller, because this would leave latent
buds, which would be liable to be developed, and thus occasion the operation

580 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

to be performed a second time. This mode of pruning is only adopted
where the object is to produce stems or trunks clear of branches, or of any
kind of protuberance, as in the case of standard trees in gardens, especially
fruit-trees, and in the case of forest-trees grown for their timber. If the
branch cut off is under an inch in diameter, the wound will generally heal
over in two seasons, and in this case the timber sustains no practical injury ;
but if it is larger, it will probably begin to decay in the centre, and thus
occasion a blemish in the timber.

Shortening-in. — This term is applied when side-shoots are shortened at
the distance of from two to four or five feet from the stem, the cut being
always made to a bud. Exceeding that distance, it is called fore-shortening,
and is chiefly applicable to timber-trees in hedge-rows ; and under that dis-
tance it is called spurring-in. In the culture of fruit-trees, it is applied in
connection with spurring-in, to produce trees of conical forms, with branches
which, never being allowed to attain a timber size, are prolific in fruit-bear-
ing spurs. Whenever the branches exceed two inches in diameter, they are
cut off within an inch of the stem, and one of the young shoots which are
produced there is trained to take its place.

Fore-shortening.— When the lateral branches of a standard tree extend
further than is desirable, a portion of their extremities is cut off; the cut
being always made close above a branch of sufficient thickness to form a
leader of sufficient strength to keep the branch alive and healthy, but not so
strong as to cause it to produce much timber, or in any way to come into
competition with the trunk of the tree. The object is to prevent the lateral
branches of the trees from injuriously shading the plants under them; and
hence it is chiefly used in the case of trees in hedge-rows.

Spurring-in.— 'The apple, the pear, the cherry, the plum, and other
fruit-trees, or fruit-shrubs, produce what are called spurs, or very short
shoots or knobs, covered with blossom-buds, naturally ; and the object of
spurring-in pruning is to produce these knobs artificially. This can only
be done with lateral shoots, to which the sap is not impelled with the same
vigor as to the growing point, because the great object in producing spurs
is to obtain blossom-buds, and these are never produced on the most vigor-
ous shoots. A lateral shoot of the present year being produced, may be
shortened to two or three visible buds, either in the beginning of summer,
after that shoot has grown a few inches in length, or in the following
winter; but the former is in general the better season, because it is not
desirable to encourage the production of wood, and, consequently, of sap,
but rather to lessen their production, so as to produce stunted branches,
which are, in fact, the spurs. The second and third years the shoots pro-
duced are shortened in the same manner ag taey were the first, and it will

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 581

generally be found that the leaf-buds left on the lower ends of the shoots,
when cut down, will the year after become blossom-buds. As by the pro-
cess of continually shortening the shoots the spurs in a few years become
inconveniently large, they are, from time to time, cut out, and new spurs
tormed by the same process as before ; and finally, after a certain time, the
entire branch bearing the spurs is cut out close to the main stem of the tree
and renewed, as spurs are, by a young shoot produced from its base. It
must be confessed, however, that pruning has but little to do with the
production of spurs that are prolific in blossoms ; that depends far more on
adjusting the nourishment supplied by the root to the demands of the fruit-
bearing branches, to the mode of training, the kind of tree, and other par-
ticulars, which, when attended to, spurs are produced naturally.
Heading-in. — This is cutting off all the branches which form the head
of a tree close to the top of the stem, leaving, however, their base to pro-
duce buds. This is done with what are called polled or pollard trees peri-
odically, for the sake of the branches produced as fagot or fence wood, and
with fruit-trees when they are to be regrafted. It is also done with stunted

Fig. 340.

P—A4

forest-trees, for the sake of concentrating the sap into a few main shoots,
instead of distributing it over a great many; and it is done in transplanting
trees of considerable size, intended to form avenues, or single trees in parks.
The branches, if under two inches in diameter, are cut off clean with a bill

49 *

582 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

at one stroke ; or, if they are larger, they are first sawn off, and afterwards
the section is made smooth with the bill-axe or the knife, but generally with
what is called the bill-knife.

Lopping. — This term is very generally applied to heading-in, but it is
also as generally used to signify the cutting off large branches from the
sides of stems, and in this sense we shall here treat of it. Lopping is per-
formed in three manners, two of which are highly injurious to the timber
of the trunk of the tree, and the other not so. The close and snag lopping
are the modes which are injurious ; the only mode of lopping large branches
from the sides of the trunks of trees, without injuring the timber in these
trunks, is to shorten them to a branch of sufficient size to heal the wound at
its base, or, at all events, to maintain the growth of the whole of the part of
the branch left, and prevent decay from reaching the trunk. This mode is
called lopping-in. Fig. 340 represents one of the lopping or branch shears,
and Fig. 341 the sliding pruning-shears.

Cutting Down.— Cutting down the stem or trunk of a tree to the ground
is an important operation, because, in some cases, such as that of resinous
or needle-leaved trees, it kills the tree, while in others, or what are called
trees that stole, which is a property of most broad-leaved trees, it affords
the means of renewing the tree. Fruit-trees cannot generally be so treated,
because the graft is for the most part only a few inches above the surface
of the soil; but even with fruit-trees, when they are stunted, there is no
better mode of restoring them to vigor than by cutting them down to the
graft.

Stopping and Pinching-out.— When the point of a shoot is cut off, or
pinched out, while that shoot is in a growing state, it is said to be stopped ;
that is, the shoot is prevented from extending its length, and the sap, which
was before impelled to its growing point, is now expended in adding to the
Jargeness or succulence of the leaves or fruits which may be on the shoot,
or in swelling or developing the buds, or in some cases changing them from
leaf-buds into flower-buds. The principal uses of stopping, however, are to
promote the setting and the swelling of the fruit, either on the shoot of the
current year, as in the case of the vine and melon, or at its base, as in the
case of the peach. Much of the winter pruning of trees might be prevented
by stopping the shoots early in summer, provided the state of the tree did
not require that the shoots should be allowed to grow their full length, in
order to send down nutriment to the increase of the roots, in consequence
of which greater vigor is in turn imparted to the stem and branches. In
this case of pruning, as in every other, the state of the tree, and a variety
of circumstances connected with it, require to be taken into consideration.

Disbarking. — This includes two distinct operations,—the removal of

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 583

coarse, loose, outside bark, to admit of the swelling of the inner bark and the
alburnum by the returning sap, and the removal of a ring of both inner and
outer bark, with a view to the interruption of the returning sap. The
removal of old bark is an operation chiefly performed with old fruit-trees in
orchards, for the sake partly of getting rid of lichens and mosses, and partly to
remove crevices which might harbor insects. It is also practised on the
stems of old vines for the latter purpose; one effect of removing the loose
outer bark of any stem being to increase its susceptibility of suffering from
changes of temperature and moisture, it may therefore often be more injuri-
ous than useful. Disbarking for the tanner consists in removing the whole
of the bark, and is best performed in spring, when, in consequence of the
abundance of ascending sap, the bark separates easily from the wood.
Scraping trees, to keep them clean, is also considerably practised.
Ringing. — This operation consists in taking off a narrow ring of bark
from a stem or branch, or even from a root, the object of which is to check
the returning sap, and force it to expand itself among the leaves, flowers,
or fruit, which are situated above the incision. The ring of bark taken off
varies in width from a sixteenth to half an inch or an inch, and its depth is
always equal to that of both outer and inner bark. In general, the width
of the ring taken off should not be greater than the tree has the power of
re-covering with bark, during the same or the following year. The operation
may be performed at any season, but its effects will only be rendered obvious
when the plant is in leaf, because at other seasons there is little or no sap
elaborated to be returned. Compressing the bark by a ligature of wire or
cord, or by a mass of Roman cement, put on like the clay of a graft, pro-
duces the same effect as ringing. In the case of fruit-trees, it is frequently
executed on the branches to produce blossom-buds, and by the same means
seedling plants are sooner thrown into blossom than they otherwise would
be. It has little effect on stone fruits; and while it succeeds on the goose-
berry, it is said not to do so on the currant. Judiciously applied, it may
often serve as a substitute for root pruning and top pruning.
Disbudding. — This is the removal of buds early in spring, just when
they are beginning to develop their leaves ; and is commonly performed with
the finger and thumb, the object being to lessen the number of shoots or of
blossom-buds to be produced. By lessening the number of blossom-buds, it
will add to the strength and probability of setting of those wh ch remain,
and the same increase of strength will take place in respect to the shoots.
whilst, at the same time, the number of these is reduced to an approximation
of that which can ultimately be retained for training. By applying this
mode of pruning judiciously on such trees as the peach, apricot, and plum,
especially when trained against walls, the use of the knife mav be in a great

584 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK

measure dispensed with, excepting for cutting out diseased or decaying
shoots. In removing the buds, care should be taken not to injure the bark
of the siuot. The buds ought not to be all disbudded at the same time ; the
fore-right ones should be first removed, and the others snecessively, at inter-
vals of several days, in order not to check the circulation of sap by a too
great privation of foliage at once.

Disleafing. — By taking the leaves off a growing shoot as fast as they are
unfolded, no buds are matured in their axils ; and thus, while the superfluous
vigor of the tree is expended, no sap is returned to the root. Disleafing in
this manner the summer’s shoots of a tree, as they proceed in growth, has
been found the simplest mode of reducing the strength of an over-luxuriant
tree. When a tree fills the space allotted to it against a wall, and shows a
disposition to still further growth, by throwing up strong vertical shoots
above the wall, and luxurious breast-wood on the main boughs, instead of
checking this disposition by any of the ordinary modes of pruning, some
gardeners assist the tree to throw off the superabundant sap, by disleafing
the breast-wood and vertical shoots, and in the winter pruning all the buds
on such shoots as are displaced, even those on the points, after which they die
off by degrees, and are cut out. Disleafing is frequently practised with fruit-
bearing plants, both woody and herbaceous, with a view to admit the sun
and air to the fruit, and sometimes also to assist in ripening wood by stop-
ping growth.

Shitling and Splitting. — These may be classed under modes of pruning,
the first being occasionally employed to relieve hide-bound trees, — a practice
of doubtful utility, — and the second to stimulate the stems to the production
of roots or shoots. Hide-bound trees are relieved by slitting the bark longi-
tudinally from the collar as high up the stem and along the branches as may
be considered necessary. ‘The lower extremities of cuttings are sometimes
slit up, and shoots are split or fractured to excite buds.

Bruising and Tearing.— Bruising and tearing off the stems of plants
from their roots are in some cases found to be more effective than cutting
them off with a smooth section. <A very full crop of pears has been obtained
from trees which before had not borne at all, by twisting and breaking down
the young shoots late in the autumn, when the wood had become tough, and
after the sap had retreated. This practice has been found successful with
branches on which ringing had been tried without success, and the pendent
branches continued perfectly healthy.

Clipping. — This is confined chiefly to common hedges and box edgings.

Root Pruning. — As the nourishment of a plant is absorbed from the soil
by the roots, it is evident that the supply will be diminished by partially eut-
ting off its source. ‘The effect of cutting through the stronger roots of trees

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 585

is analogous in its first effects to that of ringing; with this difference, that
the returning sap is stagnated throughout the whole tree, instead only in the
parts above the ring. ‘The immediate effect is to check the luxuriancy of
wood-shoots, and induce the formation of fruit-buds. The operation, how-
ever, should not be carried so far as to reduce too much the vigor of the tree,
and prevent the second result, — that of pushing a number of fibrous roots
from those amputated ; for, in defect of these, the health of the tree must
decline under the load of, in that case, imperfectly nourished fruit. With
a view to the production of a greater number of fibrous roots, old trees may
be subjected to a cautious root pruning ; but it must not be performed on
subjects unable to bear the shock, or on those in which the power of throw-
ing out fresh roots is very weak. If, however, it is found that fresh roots
have been emitted from one amputation, others may be performed, as the
roots resulting from each preceding operation come into action. Root prun-
ing is generally performed with a sharp spade, and generally only on the
main roots, at the distance of several feet from the stem, according to the
magnitude of the tree. Though this mode is chiefly employed to check the
luxuriance of young fruit-trees and throw them into blossom, yet it may be
employed for these purposes with all trees and shrubs whatever.

Girdhng and Felling. —'This is very common in this country, not for the
sake of improving the timber, but to destroy life and facilitate the destruction
of the tree. It is strongly recommended to disbark trees in the spring, before
they are to be felled, and the effect of this, in hardening the timber, is very
great; but, in a hot summer, the exposed alburnum is apt to split more or
less. A better mode has been found to be that of merely cutting out clean
artim, about four inches in width, of the bark, close to the ground. By
girdling, the whole of what would otherwise be mere alburnum becomes
similar to the heart-wood, and this may be one reason why the boards made
from such trees are found not to warp. Larches are particularly susceptible
to this process.

Seasons for Pruning. —'The seasons for pruning vary according to the
object in view. Where wood is to be cut out or buds removed, so as to
throw strength into the remaining parts of the tree, the sooner the operation
is performed, after the fall of the leaf, the better ; because, as the sap is more
or less in motion, and consequently impelled to all the buds, throughout the
whole of the winter, that which would have been employed on the shoots
‘and buds cut off is saved, and those which remain are invigorated by it.
Next to autumn, —according to the opinions of some of the most experi-
enced growers, — winter is to be preferred, for the same reason ; but in this
season mild weather is always to be chosen, because te frost, if severe,
will seize on the moisture of newly-made wounds, and rupture thesr surface.

586 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

The worst season in which any description of wood pruning can be performed
is the spring, just before the expansion of the leaves, when the sap is rising
with the greatest vigor. ‘The slightest wound made in many plants, both
woody and herbaceous, at this season, especially young, vigorous ones, where
the sap-vessels are large, occasions a great loss of sap, which must neces-
sarily weaken the plant, unless speedily checked by the only effectual mode
in which this can be done, the expansion of the leaves. For disbudding and
ringing, spring is the most suitable season, — at least, for the latter practice,
for nothing is gained by ringing before the leaves begin to expand. Buds
which are to be removed should remain as short a time as possible after they
are formed by the leaves ; but as the labor is much greater in taking them off
in autumn and winter, when they are small, than in spring, when all their
parts are more or less expanded, the operation is generally deferred till the
latter season. For disleafing, it is necessary to commence as soon as the
leaves begin to expand, and continue it as long as they are produced. ‘The
advantages of pruning just before midsummer are, that the wounds may be
partially healed over the same season, and that the sap which would have
been employed in maturing the shoots cut off is thrown into those which
remain. The disadvantages are, that the sap which would have been elabo-
rated by the leaves cut off, and which would have added to the strength of
the tree and its roots, is lost. In the case of trees already sufficiently strong,
this is no disadvantage ; but in the case of those which are too weak, it is a
positive loss. The summer season is found better than any other for prun-
ing trees which gum, such as the cherry and the plum, provided too much —
foliage is not thereby taken away ; and it is also considered favorable for
resinous trees. The autumn, on the other hand, is considered the best for
trees that are apt to suffer from bleeding, such as the vine, the birch, and
some species of maple.

IV. TRAINING.

Uses of Training. — To train a plant is to support or conduct its stem and
branches in some form or position, either natural or artificial, for purposes of
use or ornament. It is effected partly by pruning and thinning, but chiefly by
pegging down to the ground, tying and fastening to rods, stakes, or trellises,
or nailing to walls. The articles more immediately required are hooked
pegs, ties, nails, and lists, with props of various kinds, and ladders.

Principles of Training. — The principles upon which training is founded
vary according to the object in view, but they all depend more or less on
these facts : — that the sap of a plant is generally impelled with the greatest
force to its highest point, and that, in general, whatever promotes this ten-
dencv encourages the production of leaves and shoots, and whatever represses

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 587

it promotes the formation of blossom-buds. When a plant is tc be trained
over the surface of the ground, it must be borne in mind, that, as the tendency
of the sap is always to the highest bud, the shoots pegged down should be
allowed to turn up at the points, in order to promote their extension. When
the object is to produce blossoms or fruitfulness, a contrary practice should
be followed, and the puints of the shoots kept down, or, in the case of upright
grown plants, trained horizontally, or even in a downward direction. ‘This
should also be done when the object is to restrain over-luxuriance, and a
contrary practice when a weak or sickly plant or tree is to be invigorated.
When the object is to economize space, the plants are trained against a trellis,
as occupying length, but very little breadth; and when it is to increase
temperature, they are trained or spread out against a wall, which prevents
the conducting of heat and moisture from the branches, by acting as a screen
against winds, and increases heat, by reflecting the rays of the sun during
the day, and.giving out heat during the night, and whenever the atmosphere
is at a lower temperature than the wall.

Manual Operations of Training. —'The tie or the list, by which the shoots
are fastened to the wall or trellis, should be placed in the internode, and
always immediately behind a bud or joint; because, when tying or nailing
takes place in the summer season, and near the points of the growing shoots,
the latter sometimes elongate after being fastened, and if this elongation is
prevented from taking place in a straight line, by the fastening being made
immediately before a bud or leaf, instead of immediately behind it, the shoot
will be forced in a curved direction, and the bud and its leaf injured. The
bast ties are gently twisted before being tied into a knot, in order that it may
be the firmer, and not liable to be torn during the operation of tying. Osier
ties, which are frequently used for espalier-trees, are fastened by twisting
together the two ends, and turning them down in a manner sooner and
easier done than described. In fastening shoots with nails and shreds, when
any restraint is required to retain the shoot in its position, the pressure must
always be against the shred, and never against the nail, as the latter would
gall the shoot, and in stone-fruits generate gum. The shred ought not to be
placed in the hollow of a bend in the branch to be attached ; for there it is
worse than useless. On the contrary, the shreds should be put on so as to
pull the external bends inwards towards the direct line in which it is desira-
ple the branch should be trained. Nails an inch in Jength are sufficient for
ordinary branches, but twice that length is necessary for very large ones ;
they should, in general, be driven into the joints, and not into the backs,
because the joints are easily repaired. Shreds of woollen are preferred to
those of any other cloth, or to Jeather, as being softer, and less influenced by
the weather. Their length should be such as to contain a shoot double the

588 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

size of that for which they are intended, in order that they may never com-
press the shoots so much as to impede the returning sap, and their breadth
may be from half to three quarters of an inch to 2 whole inch. They should
be folded up a little at each end, so that in driving the nail through the
shred it will pierce four times its thickness, and be in no danger of tearing.

Training Herbaceous and Shrubby Plants in Pots. —'These, being in a
highly artificial state, when they require training should have straight rods,
or symmetrical frames of laths or of wire-work. A common mode for the
grape is seen in the annexed cut; formed of rods and rings of stout wire,
the whole being painted according to the taste of the grower.

Fig. 342.

Training Hardy Flowering Shrubs in the Open Ground.—Trailing and
creeping shrubs seldom require any assistance from art, excepting when
they are made to grow upright on posts, trellises, or walls. The cut which
follows represents a climbing rose, trained down from a ring which forms
the top to an iron rod. This is called the balloon manner of training, and
was first applied to apple-trees. When the rod is fixed in the ground, the
ring at the top should stand an inch or two higher than the graft at the top
of the stock, or than the head formed on the stem of the plant, if it should
not have been grafted. Six or eight of the strongest shoots are then to be
selected, and tied to the ring with tarred twine; and if, from their length,
they are liable to blow about, their ends are attached to twine, continued
from the wire to pegs stuck in the ground, as shown in the figure.

Training Fruat-trees. — By far the most important application of training
is to fruit-trees, whether for the purpose of rendering them more prolific,
improving the quality of the fruit, growing fruit in the open air which could
not otherwise be grown, except under glass, or confining the trees within a
limited space. Fruit-trees are trained either as protuberant bushes or trees
in the open garden, or spread out on flat surfaces against walls or espaliers.

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 589

In either case, the operation is founded on the principle of suppressing the
direct channel of the sap, by which it is more equally distributed over the

Fig. 343.
\

\
VZ

sa)

SG
SK i

GEA

*tree, the tendency to produce over-vigorous shoots from the highest part is
diminished, and the production of flowers from every part increased. We
find that trees in a state of nature always produce their first flowers from
lateral branches, to which the sap flows less abundantly than to those which
are vertical; and the object of training may be said to be, to give all the
parts of a tree the character of lateral branches. With a view to this,
certain rules have been derived from the principle of the suppression
of the sap, which it may be useful to notice as of general application
to every mode of training :—1. Branches left loose, and capable of being
put in motion by the wind, grow more vigorously than those which are
attached; and hence the rule to nail or tie in the stronger shoots first,
and to leave the weaker shoots to acquire more vigor. Hence, also, the
advantage of training with fixed branches against walls, as compared with
training with loose branches in the open garden, when greater fruitfulness
is the object. 2. Upright shoots grow more freely than inclined shoots.

Therefore, when two shoots of unequal vigor are to be reduced to an equality,
50

590 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the weaker must be elevated and the stronger depressed. 3. The shoots on
the upper side of an inclined branch will always be more luxuriant than
those on the lower side; therefore preserve, at the period of pruning or dis-
budding, only the strongest shoots below, and only the weakest above.
4. The lower branches of every tree and shrub decay naturally before the
upper branches; therefore bestow the principal care on them, whether in
dwarf bushes in the open garden, or with trees trained on espaliers or walls.
When they are weak, cut them out, and bring down others to supply their
place; or turn up their extreme points, which will attract a larger portion
of sap to every part of the branch.

Different Modes of Training Bushes and Trees in the Open Garden. —
These are chiefly the conical form for tall trees or standards, and some
modification of the globe or cylinder for dwarfs; but it may be remarked
that unless these and all other artificial forms are constantly watched, to
check the tendency to return to nature, they are much better dispensed with.
By careful attention, some of these artificial forms will bring trees sooner
into a bearing state, and a greater quantity of fruit will also be produced in a
limited space ; but if the continued care requisite for these objects is with-
drawn for two or three years, the growth of the tree, while returning to its
natural character, will produce a degree of confusion in the branches that
will not be remedied till all the constrained branches have been cut away.
Wherever, therefore, fruit is to be grown on a large scale, and in the most
economical manner, in orchards or in the open garden, it is found best to let
every tree take its natural shape, and confine the pruner and trainer to such
operations as do not greatly interfere with it. These are chiefly keeping the
tree erect with a straight stem, keeping the head well balanced, and thinning,
out the branches where they are crowded or cross each other, or become
weak or diseased. There are, however, many persons who have small
gardens, and who have leisure or means to attend to all the minutie of cul-
ture; and to these some of the modes of training protuberant dwarfs and
standards may be of considerable importance, by bringing the trees into a
bearing state sooner than would be the case if they were left to nature, and
by producing much fruit in little space.

Different Modes of Training Fruit-trees against Walls or Espaliers. —
These may all be reduced to three forms or systems : — the fan or palmate
form, which is the most natural mode, and that most generally applicable ;
the horizontal system, which is adapted to trees with strong stems, and of
long duration; and the perpendicular system, which is chiefly adapted to
climbers, such as the vine. Trees trained by any of the preceding modes,
against a wall or espalier, are much more under the control of art than can
ever be the case with trees or bushes in the open garden; because, in the

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 591

latter case, the whole tree, as well as its branches, is at all times more or
less liable to be put in motion by the wind, whereas against a wall they are
fixed, and have not the aid of motion to increase their thickness. For these
reasons, and also because flat training is applied to trees which, as protuber-
ant bushes in the open garden, would scarcely produce fruit at all, flat train-
ing cannot be dispensed with. In making choice of a mode of flat training,
the nature of the tree, the climate, soil, and the object in view, must be
jointly taken into consideration. ‘Trees of temporary duration, which natu-
rally produce numerous divergent branches, such as the peach and the apricot,
are best adapted for fan training, where the climate is favorable; but in a
cold climate an approach to the horizontal manner may be preferable, by
lessening the quantity of wood produced, and thus facilitating its ripening.
The horizontal system of training produces the greatest constraint on nature,
and is therefore adapted for fruit-trees of the most vigorous growth, and of
large size, such as the pear and apple, which are almost always trained in
this manner, whether on walls or espaliers. For plants producing shoots
having little or no tendency to ramnify, and which are of comparatively short
duration, the perpendicular manner is the most natural and the easiest ;
nevertheless, by disbudding and training, plants of this kind can be made to
assume the fan form, and thus be rendered more productive in blossoms and
fruit than if trained in a manner which is more natural to them; and in the
case of the vine, even the horizontal system may be adopted, because its
shoots are of great duration.

Training Dwarfs in the Open Garden. — These are trained in the form
of hollow bushes, concave, or shaped like cups, urns, goblets, or barrels,
the form being, in every case, produced by training the shoots to a frame-
work of rods and hoops. Dwarfs are also trained in the form of globes,
balloons, cylinders, low cones, pyramids, triangles, and sometimes with the
branches in regular stages, like a girandole. All dwarfs, whether to be left
to nature or trained artificially, are grafted on stocks naturally of humble
growth, such as the quince or the mountain-ash for the pear, &c., &c.

Spiral Cylinders. — Prune and manage the tree so that it shall form from
three to six branches, of as nearly equal size as possible, within about six or
eight inches of the ground; and as soon as the branches are grown from
three to five feet long, fix six rods, or stakes, into the earth, for supporting
them, in a circle about the root. Each branch is then to be brought down,
and being fixed to the rod near its base, the branch is to be carried round in
a spiral manner, on such an elevation as will form an inclination of about
fifteen degrees, and each branch is to be fixed in the same manner, one after
another ; thus all will move in the same direction, one above the other, like
s0 many cork-screws following in the same course, as shown in the annexed

592 FARMER S HAND-BOOK.

figure. As, from this position of the branches, the point bud of each leader
will present the most vertical channel for the sap, the strongest shoot will
form there, and thus afford the means of continuing the leaders to a great
height, and for a great length of time, without crossing or obstructing each

Fig. 344.

other, or throwing out useless collaterals; at the same time, by the depressed
position of the leading branches, enough sap will be pushed out on their
sides to form and maintain vigorous fruiting spurs. As trees trained in this
manner need never exceed the bounds allotted them on a border or bed, a
greater number of trees may be planted, and a greater quantity of fruit pro-
duced, in a given space, than can be the case when they are trained in any
other manner. But as pear and apple trees on free stocks may be found to
grow too rude and large, after a few years, those best answer which are
grafted on dwarf-growing stocks. However, to keep dwarf trees from
growing too luxuriant and rude, it is a good practice to take them up and
replant them every three or four years; if this be done with due care, as
soon as the leaves are off the trees in the fall of the year, it will not injure
them, nor prevent them bearing a full crop of fruit the following year.

Spurring-in. — Choose a tree that has a leading shoot in an upright
direction ; having planted it, shorten the side shoot, leaving only two or
three. buds, and shorten also the leading shoot, according to its strength, so
that no more buds may be left on it than will produce shoots. ‘The first
summer there will be a produce of shoots, and if before mid-summer the
leading shoot be shortened, it will probably throw out side shoots the same
season. At the winter pruning, all the side shoots may be shortened to two
or three buds, and the leading shoot to such a number as it is believed will
be developed. These are to be shortened, and the process of shortening is
to be repeated every year, till the tree has the appearance of Fig. 345; or
until it has attained the height required, or which the kind of tree is caleu-
lated to attain.

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 593

Fig. 345.

Conical Standards. — Conical standards, or, as they are erroneously called,
pyramidal standards,may be produced from trees partially spurred-in, but

Fig. 346.

the most general mode is, to cut in the side branches ; after passing through
50 *

594 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

several successive stages, the tree is brought to its regular shape, and the
same tree, with the branches of the current year, tied down in the quenou-
ille manner, is represented in Fig. 346. From the experience of French
gardeners, it would appear that trees trained in the conical manner and
en quenouille do not last longer than ten or twelve years. Copper wire is
used for tying down the branches, and the lower ends of the wires are
attached to the stouter branches, to the main stem, to hooked pegs stuck in
the ground, or to a wooden frame fixed a few inches above its surface.

Fan Training. —The maiden plant is to be headed down to four eyes,
placed in such a manner as to throw out two shoots on each side, as shown
in the following figure. The following season, the two uppermost shoots

Fig. 347.

are to be headed down to three eyes, placed in such a manner as to throw
out one leading shoot, and one shoot on each side; the two lowermost shoots
are to be headed down to two eyes, so as to throw out one leading shoot,
and one shoot on the uppermost side. We have now five leading shoots on
each side, well placed, to form our future tree. ach of these shoots must
be placed in the exact position in which it is to remain ; and as it is these
shoots which are to form the leading character of the future tree, none of
them are to be shortened. ‘The tree should by no means be suffered to bear
any fruit this year. Hach shoot must now be suffered to produce, besides
the leading shoot at the extremity, two other shoots on the uppermost side,
one near to the bottom, and one about midway up the stem; there must
also be one shoot on the undermost side, placed about midway between the
other two. All the other shoots must be pinched off in their infant state.
From the third year it may be allowed to bear what crop of fruit the gar-
dener thinks it able to carry; in determining which, he ought never to
overrate the vigor of the tree. All of these shoots, except the leading ones,
must be shortened at the proper season, but to what length must be left
entirely to the judgment of the gardener, it, of course, depending upon the
vigor of the tree. In shortening the shoot, care should be taken to cut
back to a bud that will produce a shoot for the following year. Cut close
to the bud, so that the wound may heal the following season. The follow,
ing season, each shoot at the extremities of the leading branches should
produce, besides the leading shoot, one on the upper and two on the under

HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 595

part, more or less, according to the vigor of the tree ; whilst each of the
secondary branches should produce, besides the leading shoot, one other,
placed near to the bottom: for the grand art of pruning, in all systems to
which this class of trees are subjected, consists in preserving a sufficient
quantity of young wood at the bottom of the tree ; and on no account must
the gardener cut clean away any shoots so placed, without well consider-
ing if they will be wanted, not only for the present but for the future good
appearance of the tree. The quantity of young wood annually laid in must
depend upon the vigor of the tree. But if any of the leading shoots mani-
fest a disposition to outstrip the others, a larger portion of young wood must
be laid in, and a greater quantity of fruit than usual suffered to ripen on the
over-vigorous branch ; at the same time, a smaller quantity of fruit than
usual must be left to ripen on the weaker branch. ‘This will tend to restore
the equilibrium better than any other method. The following figure is that

Fig. 348.

of a tree in a more advanced state, well balanced, and well calculated for an
equal distribution of sap all over its surface. Whenever any of the lower
shoots have advanced so far as to incommode the others, they should be cut
back to a yearling shoot ; this will give them room, and keep the lower part
of the tree in order. In nailing, care must be taken not to bruise any part
of the shoot ; the wounds made by the knife heal quickly, but a bruise often
proves incurable. In nailing in the young shoots, dispose them as straight
and as regular as possible. Whatever system of training is pursued, the
Jeading branches should be laid in in the exact position they are to remain ;
for wherever a large branch is brought down to fill the lower part of the
wall, the free ascent of the sap is obstructed by the extension of the upper
and contraction of the lower parts of the branch. It is thus robbed of part

596 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

of its former vigor, whilst it seldom fails to throw out immediately behind
the part most bent one or more vigorous shoots.

Horizontal Training. —'This is practised either with one or two stems,
and either with the upright stem straight or in a zigzag direction, to stimu-
late the lateral buds to develop themselves. From this upright stem, the
branches proceed at right angles, —generally at nine inches apart for apples.
cherries, and plums, and from ten inches to a foot, or eighteen inches, for
pears. A maiden plant with three shoots having been procured, the two
side ones are laid in horizontally, and the centre one upright, as in Fig.
349, which shows the first stage of horizontal training. All the buds being

Fig. 349.

rubbed off the latter but three, viz., one next the top for a vertical leader,
and one on each side, as near the top as possible, for horizontal branches.
In the course of the first summer after planting, the shoots may be allowed
to grow without being stopped. In the autumn of the first year, the two
laterals produced are nailed in, and also the shoots produced from the ex-
tremities of the lower laterals, the centre shoot being headed down as before.
But in the second summer, when the main shoot has attained the length of

Fig. 350.

ten inches, or twelve inches, it may be stopped; which, if the plant 1s in
proper vigor, will cause it to throw out two horizontal branches, in addition

= «ie

NORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 59T

to those which were thrown out from the wood of the preceding year. The
tree will be now in its second summer, and will have four horizontal branches
on each side of the upright stem ; and, by persevering in this system, four
horizontal branches will be produced in each year, till the tree reaches the
top of the wall, when the upright stem must terminate in two horizontal
branches. In the following autumn the tree will have the appearance of
Fig. 350, supposing an apple-tree be the plant to be trained, and that it
consists of a single shoot from a bud. Let it be planted early in autumn,
and next spring head it down to seven buds. Every bud pushing two or
three shoots, the third and fourth, counting upwards, must be rubbed off
when they are three inches in length ; the uppermost shoot must be trained
straight up the wall, for a leading stem, and the remaining four horizontally
along the wall. The leading shoot having attained about fifteen inches in
length, cut it down to eleven inches. From the shoots that will thus be
produced, select three, one to be trained as a leader, and two as side branches.
Proceeding in this way for seven years, the tree will have reached the top
of a wall twelve feet high. With weak trees, or trees in very cold, late
situations, this practice will not be advisable, as the wood produced from
the summer shoots would be too weak, or would not ripen; but in all
ordinary situations the plan will succeed.

Perpendicular Training. — This is comparatively little used, excepting
for climbing shrubs, such as roses, the vine, and the gooseberry and currant,
when trained against a wall or espalier rail. The principle is to have two
horizontal main stems on the lowest part of the wall or trellis, and to train
from these upright shoots at regular distances. Sometimes four horizontal
main stems are used, — two at the bottom, and the other two half way up
the wall or espalier ; but this mode is chiefly pursued with the vine.

Comparative View of the Different Modes of Training.— Of the various
modes of training explained in the foregoing pages, any modification may
be adopted when circumstances may require, provided the general princi-
ples are kept in view. Ornamental shrubs are easily managed, because
they have not a tendency to rear themselves by forming a strong stem ;
but with regard to fruit-trees the case is otherwise. These, it is well
known, if left to nature, form one strong stem, supporting a top which
reaches the height of twenty, thirty, or forty feet, or more. In order to
attain this, the sap rushes, whilst the tree is young and vigorous, towards
the leading shoot; and if lateral branches occasionally are produced, the
flow of sap is not strongly directed towards them, compared to that which is
impelled towards the more upright part. At length, however, a ramifica-
tion does take place, in comparison with which the leading shoot becomes
less and less predominant, till it becomes ultimately lost among its com-

598 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

peers. A tolerably equal distribution of sap then results, and a conical or
spherical top is formed, bearing fruit, not generally in the concavity, where
it would be greatly excluded from light, but at the external surface, where
the fruit itself, and the leaves immediately connected with the buds pro-
ducing it, can be fully exposed to light, air, and dews. Lateral branches are
occasionally produced on the stem, in the progress of its ascent. When the
top is formed, these are placed at great disadvantage, owing to their being
overshaded ; and they are then apt to decay, the tree assuming the charac-
ter of a large, elevated top, supported on a strong, naked stem. Thisis the
natural disposition of trees, and to this it is necessary to attend, in order that
it may be counteracted where the natural form of the tree cannot be
admitted. It should be borne in mind that the disposition to form an
elevated naked stem is still strongly evinced in dwarf trees; although sub-
divided, yet each branch possesses its share of the original disposition, and
its lower and horizontal shoots are left to become weak, in comparison with
the upper, and those that are vertical.

CHAPTER XIII.
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.

BLIGHT, OR BLAST—- CANKER, OR CARIES — CONSUMPTION — CONTORTION —
DROPSY— ERGOT— HONEY-DEW— CURL— MILDEW— POTATO ROT—SMUT—
COTTON ROT—COTTON RUST— COTTON BLIGHT — SORE-SHIN.

BLIGHT, OR BLAST.

Description. — Blight is any disease which seriously damages or prevents
the fructification of a crop. Some of the most familiar and devastating
kinds of it have been fully investigated, and are known to be caused by
insects, by fungi, or by well-defined chemical or meteorological agencies ;
and have been described with an accuracy and minuteness which enable us
readily to distinguish them from one another, to designate them by distinct-
ive names, — such as Mildew, Smut, Rust, &c.,—— and to point out their
origin, their indications, and their prevention, alleviation, or cure. There
are however, one or two kinds of blight still mentioned by writers under
the name of blight, and which are either principally or wholly ascribable to
meteorological influence ; and these may here be noticed.

Different Kinds of Blight. — One kind of blight is occasioned by prema-
turely mild weather, followed by sharp frosts and easterly winds, in spring,
which are liable to arrest the flow of sap from the roots, occasion the young
leaves and shoots to shrivel and die, and cause the arrested juices to swell
and burst the tender vessels, and to become the prey of innumerable aphides.
The general result is either the death of the plant, the destruction of its
growth for the season, or at least the infliction upon it of a great degree of
temporary feebleness. ‘The aphides which feed upon the extravasated
juices, though but a consequence of the blight, are sometimes mistakingly
regarded as the cause of it, and supposed to be wafted by the east wind.
Unskilful gardeners sometimes aggravate the blight by closely matting up
the trees, or keeping them protected during the day, thus rendering them so
exceedingly tender that even a slight subsequent frost does them material
damage. The sudden evaporation of hoar-frost from the opening leaflets of
a young hedge, by a powerful sun, in a calm vernal atmosphere, sometimes
80 utterly destroys the incipient,shoots, and kills all the young foliage, as to

produce, in a few days, the appearance of a severe scorching by fire. A
(599)

600 FA%MER’S HAND-BOOK.

hedye thus blighted occasionally remains leafless throughout the summer,
or only shows some feeble symptoms of exfoliation toward the beginning of
autumn ; and it ought, in every case, to be left untouched till, by its own
vitality, or without any artificial appliance, it has recovered strength and
vigor.

Another kind of blight sometimes occurs in summer, when farm crops
have attained their full growth, and is usually ascribed to sultry and pesti-
lential vapor, — the plants being shrunken and shriveled up to less than
half their former size, with a withered and blasted appearance. ‘Though
such instances as this are ascribed wholly to atmospherical causes, a care-
ful inspection of the straw might possibly detect the presence of minute
parasitic fungi.

A third kind of blight, called by many the white blight, is occasioned by
deficiency or failure of proper nourishment. It occasionally attacks all
kinds of plants, both wild and cultivated ; is most common in thin, gravelly,
irretentive soils, in very dry seasons ; and it usually consists in throwing the
plants prematurely into blossom, and ripening the ear or pod before the
body, or more than the mere embryo of the seed, is formed. The only
known palliatives or preventives of these three kinds of blight are, proper
condition and thorough treatment of the soil.

CANKER, OR CARIES.

Description. — This is a disease in fruit-trees, elms, larches and other trees.
It chiefly corrupts the juices, corrodes the substance, and destroys the vitality
of the young shoots and branches of fruit-trees, and it has long been known
and deplored as a most formidable enemy of orchards. Its symptoms vary
considerably in trees of the same species, and very widely in trees of dif-
ferent genera. In some instances of its attack, a black speck appears on the
epidermis of a tree, assumes the character of an erosion, and gradually eats
away the organism, till the branch becomes utterly enfeebled, and readily
breaks ; in other instances, a scrofulous-looking ring surrounds the branch,
and eats its way inward till it reaches the pith; and in others, a black and
thread-like line of disease originates in the pith itself, and exerts, in the
direction of the exterior, a killing power upon all the branch’s functions.
The first of these, however, is the most common commencing symptom of
the disease, and this is usually accompanied with an enlargement of the
vessels of the bark, but in some instances is dry, and in others watery.

The swelling or enlargement of the vessels of the bark, which constitutes
SO conspicuous a symptom of some of the ordinary kinds of canker, invaria-
bly and prominently attends it in the apple-tree, invariably but less promi-
nently attends it in the pear-tree, frequently but not always attends it in the

aie
os

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 601

elm and the oak, and very seldom, if ever, attends it in the peach. The
swelling is soon communicated to the wood, which, if laid open to view, on
its first appearance, by the removal of the bark, exhibits no marks of dis-
ease beyond the mere unnatural enlargement. In the course of a few years,
— less in number, in proportion to the advanced age of the tree, and the
unfavorable circumstances under which it is vegetating, —the swelling is
greatly increased in size, and the alburnum has become extensively dead ;
the superincumbent bark cracks, rises in discolored scales, and decays
even more rapidly than the wood beneath. If the canker is upon a mod-
erately-sized branch, the decay soon completely encircles it, extending
through the whole alburnum and bark. The circulation of the sap being
thus entirely prevented, all the parts above the disease of necessity perish.
The first appearance of the disease in the peach is so very slight, that an
unexperienced observer of it would suppose it to be of no consequence.
Small brown circular spots constitute the whole of this appearance, and may
easily be cut out with the knife, so as to let the subsequent vegetation be as
vigorous as if they had never existed. But let the spots be forgotten for a
few days, and when the observer returns to examine them, they will be
found to have spread far and corroded deeply.

Origin. — The causes assigned for canker have been very various and
conflicting, and the subject of much controversy. Some writers think that
it is occasioned by coldness and churlishness of climate; others regard it
as a tropical disease in the parts immediately affected, brought on by some
bruise or other injury, and exasperated by an unhealthy sap, consequent upon
unfavorableness of situation, soil and culture; others view it as an effect of
the lodgment of minute, parasitic fungi, growing from spores, either taken up
from the soil through the spongioles, or received from diffusion through the
atmosphere into cracks or wornds in the bark ; and others think that it is a
disease in the constitution or whole organic system of trees, — that it springs
from a vitiated and peccant state of all the juices, and that it will again and
again break out, independently of any external injury or agency, so long as
the juices continue to be unaltered.

Opinions as to fungi being the cause of canker are exceedingly various
and conflicting. Minute parasitic fungi unquestionably attend most
instances of canker, and sometimes exist in such myriads as to impart a
peculiar tinge to the whole stem of cankered trees; but very different fungi
attack different trees, several kinds sometimes attack the same species, and
possibly some are either causes or aggravations of canker, while most are
merely innocuous effects. The stramatospheria multiceps so commonly and
greatly abounds on cankered pear-trees, particularly on uic iargonelle, the
Windsor, the swan’s egg, the summer bergamot and the autumn bergamot

602 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

varieties, and seeming to make their young shoois, and even their older
branches, die away toward the extremity, that it has been regarded by some
close observers as the sole cause of their canker ; — a kind of fungus totally
different from this accompanies, and has been thought by some persons to
rouse, precisely similar symptoms of canker in apple-trees.

The opinion that canker is occasioned by the weakness of a tree’s consti-
tution, by a distemper in all its juices, or by a deficiency in its functional
energies, and by a consequent inability to imbibe and elaborate sufficient
nourishment for existing organs, and sufficient matter for the formation of
new parts, — this opinion makes very ample allowance for the malign influ-
ence of bad climate, bad soil, bad cultivation, bad variety of tree, and all sorts
of accidents and unfavorable circumstances; and, as maintained by some
writers, it even seems to speak of constitutional distemper as a convenient
general expression for the operation of all kinds of conceivable causes.
Johnson maintains that all facts unite in confirming the opinion that canker
arises from the tree’s weakness. It matters not whether its energy is
broken down by an unnatural rapidity of growth, by a disproportioned excess
of branches over the mass of roots, by old age, or by the disorganization of
the roots in an ungenial soil; they render the tree incapable of extracting
sufficient nourishment from the soil, — consequently incapable of developing
a sufficient foliage, and therefore unable to digest and elaborate even the
scanty sap that is supplied to them.

Both soil and subsoil, in spite of the assertion of a few writers to the
contrary, appear to exert a very considerable influence. A wet, retentive
subsoil does not permit sufficient aeration, cannot perform sufficient diges-
tion, and will not allow a sufficiency of perfectly fresh elements of healthy
sap; and therefore must act malignly, not alone as a reservoir of cankering
vapors, but as an originator of impoverishing and poisonous juices. A deep
and very rich soil gives trees a plethoric and dropsical habit, and, in conse-
quence, occasions so powerful a predisposition to canker, that a cure for
this disease in an orchard has sometimes been found in the simple process
of wheeling away one stratum of the soil, and diluting the remaining
stratum. If a subsoil either be ill-drained or consist of ferruginous gravel,
or if a soil be clayey and not kept well drained and porous, all trees which
grow upon it, but especially fruit-trees, are exceedingly lable to become
cankered. A soil exhausted by long cropping, or charged with the sporidia
of accumulated growths of minute emphytic fungi, is peculiarly unfavorable ;
and hence an old worn-out orchard, if replanted with fruit-trees, is almost
certain to communicate canker to even the most vigorous young plants
which can be selected. A cold situation, frequency of raw fogs, and the
prevalence of piercing and moist east winds, in the spring, seem to be the
principal cankering elements in climate. Injudicious pruning. bruises,

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 603

damage to the bark, and all similar accidents, if they do not originate
canker, seldom fail to aggravate it. Trees of every age are liable to
canker; but, as a general rule, all become increasingly so as they advance
in age, and particularly such as have had a vigorous growth in their youth.
All grafting varieties of fruit-trees, also, become more and more cankerable
as they multiply in reproduction, till they eventually acquire such an
accumulation of peccant humor as to be continually diseased, and no longer
propagable. ‘The scions of an old variety of fruit-trees merely multiply an
aged individual ; and though they acquire temporary vigor from the young
and stimulating sap of the stocks on which they are grafted, they become,
in a few years, as cankerable and decrepit as the parent tree. ‘The golden-
pippin, one of the oldest varieties of the apple-tree at present cultivated, is
frequently and severely attacked by the canker,— more so, according to
some writers, than any other kind.

Remedy. — 'The prevention and cure of canker are necessarily various, and
must, in any one instance, be directed against the special forms which the dis-
ease assumes, or the particular cause by which it is excited. If coldness of
climate be the only cause which can fairly be assigned for it in any par-
ticular orchard, covering with glass is the chief preventative ; and this, of
course, can be applied to only a few select wall-trees. If fungi can, in any
instance, be regarded as a chief exciting cause, a proper remedy might
probably be the free use of the knife, and a subsequent copious washing
with caustic lime-water. If plethoric or dropsical habits seem to be form-
ing, or have already formed, one of the main roots of the tree may be
removed, and an admixture of poor loam, sandy mould, or even of drift sand,
or any other diluting matter, may be worked into the soil. If mere weak-
ness of constitution, or defect of functional energy, appears to be the cause,
while no one kind of: exciting influence can be detected or inferred, a very
efficient remedy is, to cut away all the infected parts, and make a judicious
pruning among the remaining branches; and even if such exciting circum-
stances as unfavorable climate, ungenial soil, or previous bad culture, can
be detected, an excellent effect may be produced by the gradual sawing and
cutting away of exuberant branches and shoots. If canker in a fruit-tree is
a consequence of old age, it is probably a premature senility, induced by
injudicious management. Unless in the last stage of decay, a tree may be
recovered by giving it more air and light, by carefully heading-in, pruning,
improving the soil, and cleansing the bark. If the soil, by its ungenial
character, induces the disease, the obvious and only remedy is its amelior-
ation; and if the subsoil is the cause of the mischief, the roots must be
prevented striking into it. Injal]l cases, it is the best practice to remove the
tap-root. ‘Some persons recommend, and many successfully practise, the

604 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

removal of all decayed or exuviated bark, and the application cf various
liquid washes, suchas a solution of common salt, or a diluted liquid com-
pound of cow-dung, soap-suds, and urine. When any bruise or other injury
is inflicted, of a kind likely to induce or develop canker, a piece of living
bark from another tree might be exactly fitted into the incision, in the same
manner as in the operation of budding. The grand preventative of canker in
larch-trees, — which are frequently and severely the subjects of this disease,
—is to select, for plantations, such situations and soils as shall not subject
the trees to combined coldness and moisture.

‘ CONSUMPTION.

This is the gradual enfeeblement and “eventual wasting away and death
of a plant. This must be viewed less as any one disease than as the com-
mon or aggregate character of a number of diseases. It originates variously,
in too frequent and profuse flowering, in bad planting, in mechanical dam-
age to the roots, in poverty of soil, in excessive drought, in severe and sud-
den vicissitudes of weather, in unusually tempestuous winds, and probably
in some other causes equally distinct; and it may be supposed to have a
variety in its modes of action, or in its distinctive characters, corresponding
to the variety of these causes. The preventative of most kinds of it is man-
ifestly good culture.

CONTORTION.

This is the effect of the injury inflicted on the leaves of plants by the
puncture of insects, particularly of the aphides. ‘The leaves of the peach,
the apricot, the nectarine, and the apple-tree, are very liable to contortion.
The only sure preventative of the evil is to destroy the little creatures which
cause it.

DROPSY.

Dropsy is a watery and diseased swelling in some parts of plants. It
occurs chiefly in plants of a succulent nature, and principally in bulbs,
tubers, and fruits. It appears to arise from the absorption of more moisture
by the spongioles than can be secreted in the plant or thrown off by the
leaves; and it is known to be caused by excessive manuring, excessive
artificial watering, and an unusual abundance of rain. Bulbs and roots
affected with it are watery and swelled ; fruits are watery and insipid, and
fall before being ripe ; and leaves, though continuing green and apparently
sound, suddenly and prematurely fall.

ERGOT.

This is a disease in the growing grain or seed of some of the grasses,
particularly of rye. It is the most mysterious of all the diseases with which

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 605

the cereal grasses are affected; and, after multitudinous and most learned
investigations, continues to be the subject of conflicting opinions as to its
nature, its origin, and its mode of development. The substance called the
ergot either issues from between the glumes. and occupies the place of the
grain, or it is the grain itself, in both a monstrous form and a chemically
altered condition. It lengthens to more than double the natural size of the
grain; protrudes beyond the chaff; is angled, grooved, and furrowed ; has a
deep, purplish-brown color, and often assumes a curved form, somewhat
resembling that of a cock’s spur. Its surface, when seen through a micro-
scope, is profusely marked with white, shining, transparent, angular dots ;
and its interior, when laid open with a sharp instrument, and seen in water
under a microscope, appears to.consist of white flocculent threads, with
spherical sporules. It has a spongy texture, a heavy, disagreeable odor,
and a nauseous, acrid, burning taste; and when put in contact with the
flame of a candle, it catches fire like an oily substance, and burns like an
almond. It is supposed by some naturalists to be an excrescence similar to
the oak-apple and the nut-gall, and to be occasioned by the puncture of some
insect ; by others, to be a monstrous development or morbid swelling of
the seed, occasioned by some disturbance in the organs of circulation or
secretion ; and by others, to be a foreign or super-imposed vegetable growth,
occasioned by a parasitic fungus. ‘The last of these opinions is probably
the best supported.

Whatever be its origin and its physical nature, ergot exerts a dreadfully
noxious power upon the system of any men or brutes who receive even very
small portions of it in their food. It has been ascertained, by experiment
upon many of the lower animals, to produce the most horrible gangrenes,
rotting of the extremities, internal tortures, and agonizing death; it has
been known to slough and kill not a few human beings who have eaten
grain or flour infected with it.

HONEY-DEW.

Honey-dew, so called, is a clear, colorless, viscid, sweet liquid, found
often on the leaves.of plants, and sometimes on the ground beneath them.
It tastes somewhat like honey ; it is perfectly fluid in warm weather, but is
somewhat consolidated or candied in cold weather; and, when evaporated
from paper, it leaves a gummy mark, not unlike that left by solution of
gum-Arabic. It appears sometimes in blotches upon leaves; sometimes in
suffusion over the whole surface of the lower leaves ; sometimes in globular
drops, of various sizes; but, in all ordinary instances, it appears merely
upon leaves, and only in such quantity as to seem like exudations on their
surface. All ants and wasps and bees are extremely fond of it.

51*

606 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

The opinions of different writers are very conflicting as to tle origin, and
so forth, of honey-dew. The most intelligent supposition respecting it is,
that it is entirely the deposit of minute insects, —small flies, perhaps a
species of the genus thrips, — which emit a sweet clammy liquor on the leaves
of the tree it lives on. This opinion is fortified by the fact of there having
frequently been noticed a great concourse of thripses, as well as aphides, on
trees infested with honey-dew. ‘The aphides, however, are by many persons
considered the chief or sole producers of it, and it accompanies their flights
and colonizations. They differ very widely, in some principal parts of their
economy, from all other animals; and cannot be regarded with greater
wonder as ejectors of a viscid saccharine liquid, than as propagators of their
species through a series of progenies as the effect of a single impregnation.
They live wholly on liquid food, and discharge no solid excrements, and
are provided not only with an anal vent, but with two long, horn-like rump
tubes, for ejecting such refuse or portion of their food as is unnecessary for
their nourishment. If they were regarded as forming the saccharine matter
of the honey-dew in their interior organism, they would no doubt be a nota
ble exception to the otherwise uniform origin of all saccharine substances ;
but, when their peculiar economy of feeding and structure is considered,
they may easily be supposed to act as simple living ducts of the saccharine
matter from the vegetable vesicles in which they find it to the surface of the
leaves on which they deposit it; or, in other words, they receive the sac-
charine matter ready made in their liquid food, and simply part with unde-
composed portions of it in their ejections. The particular species which
deposit most honey-dew are Aplus brassice, Aphis rape, Aphis ubui, Erios
oma populi, and Eriosama mal.

Honey-dew possesses an incidental value as an occasional and sometimes
a principal food for bees. But, on the whole, honey-dew is a serious evil,
partly by disfiguring the foliage of fruit-trees, and stickily attracting dust to
plums and cherries, but chiefly by arising, through the medium of the
aphides, from an enormous abstraction of the healthy juices out of plants.
The only effectual preventive or cure of it, of course, is to ward off or destroy
the aphides; and some of the chief means of dealing with the species are
noticed in our chapter on Insects. But a weak solution of common salt,
applied to the soil around infected trees, has been found to he effectual.

CURL.

This is a disease in potato plants. It is developed before the plants rise
to the surface of the ground, and it affects them through all the future stages
of their existence. ‘The stem of the infected plants is puny and stinted ; the

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 60T

leaves are meagre, sickly and crumpled ; and the tubers are small, and, if
used for sets, are certain to propagate the disease. Of the various causes of
this disease assigned by different writers, the true one appears to be the
diminution of the vital energy of the tubers, either by over-ripening, by bad
keeping, by sprouting, or by too deep planting. The want of strength to
develop a full, healthy plant, is the disease itself in embryo; and this is
occasiuned by any circumstance which diminishes the store of nourishment
contained in the tubers for the support of the young plants.

The means of preventing curl are distinctly suggested by the nature of its
cause ; and some of these means will, at the same time, prevent other dis-
eases of the potato, and promote the general health and vigor of the plants.
Tubers intended for sets ought to be simply matured and not over-ripened;
they ought to be kept, throughout the winter and till the time when they are
wanted, in a condition of dryness, coolness, and exclusion from light and air ;
and if, through mismanagement or accident, they be allowed to shoot, or
even to exhibit decided symptoms of begun vegetation, they ought to be
rejected from the uses of planting. The sets ought to be immediately
planted after they are cut, and ought to be kept from exposure, during even
the briefest time, to the play of sunshine, to a very high temperature, or to
the current of a drying wind. The manure ought to be regularly spread
and mixed with the soil, and not laid along a trench, or put in immediate
contact with the sets. Potatoes ought not to be planted, for a succession of
years, on the same field or plot; and the tubers used for planting ought,
every year, or as frequently as possible, to be obtained from another kind of
soil, particularly from a poorer one than that in which they are to be
planted. When the seed-stock is carefully pitted, and not exposed to the
air, in the spring, the crop has seldom any curl; but where the seed-stock is
put into barns, and other similar places, for months together, such crop
seldom escapes turning out in sore measure curled ; and if but few curl the
first year, if they are planted again, it is more than probable the half of them
will curl the next season.

MILDEW.

The Use of the Word or Term.—This is the appropriate name of a
specific, devastating, and dismally common disease in wheat and other
grasses, and is now the only thing meant by the word mildew, in the writ-
ings of the most intelligent and scientific agricultural writers.

tts Nature. — With respect to its nature, all botanists now believe that
mildew, in its normal form, asa spotting and blotching on the stalks of
wheat, is the regular parasitic growth of minute fungi, — Puccenta grami-
nis; and several of the most eminent writers think that the diseases called

608 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

rust, red-bag, red-robin, and red-gum, which infest the leaves and chaff
scales of wheat, and produce a discoloration similar to that of iron-rust or
of burning, are simply modifications of varieties of the normal mildew, or
Puccinia graminis.

Grewth and Phenomena of Mildew. —'Though one of the minutest objects

in the vegetable world, mildew is so prodigiously prolific and immensely +

multitudinous as to be one of the mightiest physical scourges, as well as one
of the oldest ; and yet, even at this advanced period, it hardly begins to be
properly understood. The name Puccinia is formed from a Greek word,
which signifies ‘‘ closely,’’ or ‘‘ thickly,’’ and alludes to the crowded man-
ner in which the minute fungi are packed in the tufts and patches in which
they grow. A stalk of wheat, when beginning to be mildewed, exhibits a
number of dark-colored spots beneath the epidermis, some of an orange hue
and others of a dark-brown tinge ; and, in a short time, it suffers ruptures
and openings of the outer cuticle, and displays, in protrusion through these,
dark, musty clusters of spores, amassed in dense, diffuse tufts, and often con-
fluent into one another, so as to constitute long parallel lines, and commonly
possessing at first a brownish-yellow color, and changing afterwards to black.
Any intelligent person, with -the aid of a proper microscope, and of a good
brilliant light, may easily show to the farmer the forms and appearances of
mildew. First strip off a little bit of the affected straw, and let it be viewed
as an opaque object. The thick clustering of the spores might be easily
pointed out, as well as the way in which they rupture the cuticle, —a half-
inch achromatic object-glass, with a low eye-piece, will suffice for this;
with a higher power, aud bits of cuticle and straw cut so thin that the light
may easily be shown through them from the mirror, the stomata would be
seen, and the vegetation of the spores on the mycetium in the caviti2s
beneath them. Lastly, a small piece of one of the dark patches might be
taken off with the point of a pin, or of asmall penknife, and laid on a strip
of glass. Moisten this with a little drop of water, and cover it with a small
fragment of the very thin glass sold by opticians for such purposes. Place
it on the stage of the microscope, show the light through it, and look at. it
with a quarter of an inch achromatic. The structure of the spores, the
division of the chambers, the stalks, and every part of them, will become
distinctly seen.

The Puccinia graminis affects, not wheat only, but other cereal grasses,
and even several species of reeds ; and it is common to almost all countries
in the world. A growth of it, when seen unmagnified upon the leaves of
other plants, presents nearly the same appearance as on wheat, and may
instantly be detected by an observer of it upon the latter. It may often be
detected in the lower part of the stalk of wheat, — generally on the shoot-blade,

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 609

a early as the second week of June; but it never makes any very serious
aj pearance, nor even affords decided indication of being about to make any
considerable devastation, till some time in July. If the weather in July be
hot and dry, even though the fungus may have recently devastated the dis
trict, it will seldom make an extensive or very hurtful development ; but if
the weather in July be close, moist, and cloudy, even though the fungus
may have been recently scarce in the district, it will possibly make a great,

nd somewhat sudden, and very menacing appearance. ‘The farmer, in the
latter case, ought diligently to examine his wheat crop, especially such as
seems to be strongest and most luxuriant; and if he detects any considerable
number of tufts of the fungus upon the stalks, he ought promptly to bring
into play such methods of treatment as have been found most effectual for
subduing mildew.

When the sporules of puccinia have entered the stomata of wheat, and
effected a lodgment beneath the epidermis, and begun to vegetate within the
stalk, they both prey upon the tissues and intercept a portion of the sap
which ascends from the spongioles of the roots for the forming and nourish-
ing of the grain. But the exterior portion or sheath of the grain is
generally formed before any considerable mildewing occurs ; and the period
of the formation and growth of the inner portion, or farinaceous substance, or
flor, is precisely the period of the most general and vigorous development
of the sporules into spores and full-grown fungi; so that, usually in the
proportion of the number of the fungi which infest a stalk, the grain becomes
shriveled while growing, and contains comparatively much bran and little
flour when reaped and threshed. ‘The sample of a seriously mildewed crop
of wheat, in every instance, looks poor to the eye, is deficient in flour, and
contains a superabundance of bran.

The Uredo linearis and Uredo ruligo, though believed to be mere varieties
of Puccinia graminis, and though sometimes assuming appearances closely
akin to those which are popularly called mildew, generally have different
habits, and follow somewhat different laws, and take from the popular
vocabulary of farmers the names of rust, red-rust, red-robin, red-rag, and red-
gum. The U. linearis takes its name from the oblong form of its spores ;
and the U. rubigo takes its name from its reddish-rusty color, and has nearly
spherical spores. Both vary in color from an orange tint to a browmish
hue, and make the parts of plants infested with them to appear as if dusted
with an orange or a brownish rustiness. ‘They occur on the old or young
leaves of the plants, on the chaff-scales, and on the stalks; and they infest
the plants at all stages of their growth, and may ve regarded as occurring
principally on the young blades in spring, principally on the stalks when
developed about the same time as the Puccinia gramunis, or in mixture with

610 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

it, and principally on the old leaves and on the glumes and palez in autumn.
Their presence in the chaff-scales is indicated by rows and clusters of some-
what ovular minute spots; and the matter composing them exudes from the
inner surface like a reddish gummy substance. A very destructive fungus
attacks the common cabbage, and appears upon it as a mildew. It appears
upon cabbage-leaves, in clusters resembling smal] white patches, or specks,
or frosty incrustations. Al] the spores are filled with sporules, and burst
when they are ripe, scattering them in every direction ; and whenever these
find their way to the leaves of cabbages, they take root upon them, and prop-
agate.

Provocatives, Preventives, and Correctives. —The extermination of Puc-
cinia graminis, Uredo linearis, and Uredo rubigo, from any district or coun-
try, seems to be impossible. But the mildew can manifestly be very greatly
controlled, and, in an aggregate of years upon any farm. may be exceed-
ingly diminished. ‘The conditions of soil, of crop, of culture, and even of
climate, which predispose to it, by either rendering it prolific, or giving
high vivacity to its sporules, or producing an aptitude in the stomata of
plants to imbibe them, or disposing the tissues and juices of the plant to
foster and develop them, may be very powerfully modified by the skill and
the arts of enlightened husbandry. A generally healthy state of the plant,
without any over-luxuriance of vegetation, is most likely to secure a crop
against the attacks of the rust and mildew fungi; but whatever tends to
render the plant sickly, — whether it be excess of heat or cold, drought or
wet, sudden changes of temperature, poverty of soil, over-manuring, shade,
&c., &c.,— must be considered as a predisposing cause to these diseases.
Wherever the farming is of the best kind, and where drainage is good, the
mildew fungus will not be found in any alarming degree.

The mildew fungi multiply and flourish most in a moist atmosphere, in a
subdued light, and in a gentle warmth ; and are therefore most abundant and
destructive in climates and situations which are subject to what farmers ex-
pressively call ‘‘ muggy weather.’’ ‘This may appear, at first sight, to be a
cause of mildew entirely beyond the control of farmers. Yet something may
be done to escape it, by practising such methods of culture, and adopting such
times of sowing, and using such varieties of seed-stock, as are best fitted to
bring the crop into a state of the utmost possible maturity and vigor at the
particular season when the moistness or mugginess is, on the average of years,
most prevalent. Foggy weather, in some circumstances, seems to be even a
stronger provocative to mildew than ordinary moist weather; and, when
preceded by a time of great drought, occasions an unusually great mildew-
ing of wheat crops.

All soils are very seriously subject to mildew, yet some yield more readily

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 611

and abundantly to it than others. Tenacious clays seem to offer it the
greatest resistance, and light moorish or light limy soils seem to offer it
but slightly. The soils most liable to have their crops injured, particularly
that of wheat, are the following, and in the order stated: — peat or moor,
limy, limy loams, sand, sandy loams, and another kind not found in any
great breadth, but in patches, chiefly, but not exclusively, in clayey soils, —
the practical farmer calls it gray earth. Whatever has a tendency to check
a quick and great loss of heat in the substances which surround vegetables,
particularly their roots, will be best calculated to save them from the injury
inflicted by sudden vicissitudes of temperature ; consequently, those earths
which are the worst conductors of heat, or, in other words, are the longest
in heating or cooling, will be the most favorable in resisting any sudden
alteration, and the vegetable growing on them will be the least injured
when so assailed. The improvement of light soils by abundant intermix-
tures of clay, therefore, — in addition to the great advantages of better tex-
ture and richer supply of inorganic food, — involves the benefit of appreciably
and permanently diminishing liability to mildew.

All varieties of wheat are seriously liable to mildew, but some are rather
more liable than others. ‘The white is generally the earliest affected, and
the bearded or rivet is generally the latest. Any variety of wheat which
has a comparatively soft epidermis is probably more subject to mildew than
one with a comparatively hard epidermis.

The time of sowing, regarded correlatively to the time of its maturing and
to the principal time of mildewing, is important. Early-sown wheat-plants
are more likely than late-sown ones to pass the time of blooming before
being extensively attacked ; and when they can begin to form their seeds
before the mildew sets in, they suffer far less damage from it, or are far less
embarrassed and impoverished during the process of seeding, than if they
were attacked in an earlier stage of their growth. lLate-sown plants, too,
are green and sappy at the very season when the chills and fogs and courses
of moist weather, which specially induce mildew, are most abundant; and
they are, therefore, liable to be both vigorously and very extensively
attacked. Yet, in some cases, early-sown crops, almost or quite as much
as late-sown ones, are preyed upon by mildew.

Rank or excessive manuring, or any combination of circumstances which
occasions excessive luxuriance in a corn crop, both invites mildew, and
greatly invigorates and spreads it. The application of farm-yard manure
immediately before sowing may both make such an evolution of gases as to
attract the sporules floating in the atmosphere, and promote such a tempo-
rary plethoric growth in the crop as is eminently suited to the lodgment of
the sporules and the development of the fungi. Excessive early luxuriance,

612 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

whether from iinmediate manuring, from over-richness of the soil, or from
unusual forwardness and warmth in the weather, ought to be checked by
feeding down with sheep during a few hours in the day-time, or by any other
method which experience and local peculiarities may suggest.

A clean or a foul state of the ground, during the early stages of the
growth of acrop, has, in all cases, a great influence upon eventual mildewing ;
weeds serve as nests of the mildew fungi, and nurse, and feed, and multiply
them, preparatory to extensive and severe attacks upon the corn; and, in all
the early stages of the growth of drilled wheat, they ought to be completely
kept down, and all the surface stratum of the soil, at the same time, kept in
a perfectly sweet and well aerated condition, by the free use of the hoe.
Mildew will seldom prevail to any extent where this precaution is taken ;
but wherever there are many weeds on the land, the straw will be generally
found more or less affected by it.

Many methods have been recommended to prevent or destroy mildew ;
but almost all of them are impracticable or worthless. A solution of com-
mon salt, however, when applied, not to the soil, but to the crop itself, in
the manner of either a vapor or a sprinkle bath, seems to kill the mildew
fungus, and to operate, if not as a preventive against an attack of mildew,
at least as a cure of actual mildew disease. The wheat on the seaside is
little damaged by the mildew ; yet, within a very few miles inland, the crops
are as much affected as those still further from the sea. The safest quantity
of salt per gallon is eight ounces, and then the application may be rendered
more effectual by frequent repetition, without any danger of injury to the
plants. If the application is not made during a clouded day, it is best to
defer it till the evening.

As to the idea that the barberry has a considerable influence in the com-
munication of the mildew to wheat, the conclusion arrived at by those who
have investigated the matter, and whose judgment is entitled to respect, is,
that no such influence is exerted or produced by that plant.

POTATO ROT.

Description. —'The murrain, or rot, or mildew, or whatever else the modern
potato disease may be called, exhibits a great diversity of phenomena, and
probably comprises many and wide sub-varieties of character. Its greatfeat-
ures are commencement after the formation, or even towards the ripening, of
the tubers, and total, irretrievable, putrefactive-looking decay of the whole
plant. It is said by some persons to begin in the leaf,— by others, in the
stem,— and by others, in the tubers; it sometimes slowly works the plant

o decay through a period of five or six weeks, and sometimes scathingly
and scorchingly overwhelms it in the course of twenty-four hours, or in a

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 613

single night; and, in not a few instances in which it seemed to have kept
aloof from plants till they were harvested, it has burst out among the tubers
and rotted them in the pit. No descriptions of it, for the present race of
cultivators, are needed ; and the very best descriptions of it which have
been penned are tinged with theory, and controlled by its own diversities,
and are therefore very conflicting ; yet two brief notices of it, by two of the
most distinguished observers, may be here recorded. That eminent Euro-
pean agriculturist, Mr. George Phillips, gives it as his opinion that the
stem is the part where it commences. He also says: —The first external
appearance of disease was marked by a deepening of color, accompanied by
an enlargement of the affected part, and succeeded by a weeping or exuda~
tion. As the disease advanced, the part of the stem affected became soft
and pulpy, and the color changed to a yellowish-brown. The stem was
generally, if not universally, first affected at a joint, or the part from whence
a lateral branch springs, and the leaves above the diseased part blackened,
drooped, and died. Seven plants (says Mr. Phillips) were forwarded to
me by a gentleman of great practical knowledge, and better specimens for
the purpose could not be desired. ‘The stems were all connected with the
parent sets, so that the foliage, stems, young tubers, roots, and sets, were
complete. The upper part of the stems and leaves of the diseased plants
had the dull and heavy appearance so characteristic of the disease; and
nearly the whole of the stems were more or less affected at one or the other
joints whence the lateral branches sprang from. In some of the plants the
stem was most affected at a particular joint ; in others, the smallest branches
and leaves were the most injured. No trace of fungi or insects was discoy-
erable in some of the affected stems beyond the immediate localities of the
diseased joints. ‘The disease in these cases had not extended itself, and was
confined to a space not exceeding one inch of the length of the foot-stalk
In other cases, the disease had spread both ways for a considerable distance
from the wound, confining itself chiefly to the medulla. Fungi of the boleti
and stellate kind were observable in all the diseased stems ; and at the parts
where putrescence existed, the eel-like animalcula abounded. According
to another learned observer, the disease usually commences in a semi-trans-
parent blotch on the underground parts, which is formed by brown, shiny.
extravasated fluid between the epidermis and inner bark, sometimes only on
one side of the stem or roots ; and, if the soil becomes dry and the weather
fair, it penetrates through the bark rather slowly, but progresses rapidly in
a damp soil, with a close, humid atmosphere. Several of these blotches, in
their transparent state, were marked, as soon as found, with bits of thread,
and it was seen that, sooner or later, according to the circumstances above
mentioned, they assumed a scurvy, opaque appearance outside ; but, by cut-
52

614 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

ting through this, the shiny fluid might generally be seen within. The
blotches in the tubers change in a similar manner, and the progress of the
gangrene in them is accelerated or retarded by the like circumstances.
Similar blotches appear about the same time, or soon after, on the roots and
cords. Sometimes, however, the leaves are blotched first of all. Many
very large plants have been found with nearly every leaf and the stalks
likewise blotched, the leaves being covered with botrytis, while the roots
and lower parts of the stems remained quite clear; but (says the same
writer), I have never seen, until the 24th of October, diseased roots or
cankered stems supporting healthy foliage. Hence it appears that the dis-
east does not uniformly originate in the underground parts, but that the
plant is stricken throughout its system by an ungenial, or, rather, by a per-
nicious state of the atmosphere, — the effects of which, as amongst animals,
break out sometimes in one part and sometimes in another. As to the
diseased tubers, at whatever time they were first affected, whether in the
field or in the pit, many of them soon became rotten to the core; others
rotted in patches, and acquired an appearance similar to that of an apple
bruised by a fall; and a few, after being dried and carefully stored, ceased
to be further injured. The diseased parts, in an advanced stage, commonly
formed irregular ulcers, and emitted an offensive odor; the parts around the
eyes, in many instances, became mouldy; and the part next the stem, in
general, was the soonest and most severely affected. The tainted tubers
were largely employed for the feeding of cattle and hogs, and are not
reported to have done any injury to their health; and, when boiled, their
tainted portion, in its earliest stage, was sweet-tasted, and had a disagree-
able smell.

A report, in the Highland Society’s Transactions, of special communica-
tions from intelligent farmers in most of the affected districts of Scotland, in
1845, affords the following observations : —'The disease appeared chiefly in
the latter part of August, and in September and October, yet broke out in
some places in July, and did not break out in others till the tubers were
lifted and stored ; the weather was prevailingly cold and ungenial, but no
precise state of it could be identified with the breaking out of the disease ;
early varieties, which were matured soon in the season, either escaped the
disease, or were much less affected by it than the later varieties ; all varie-
ties whatever, except the earliest ones, were more or less attacked, but in
diflerent degrees, and the varieties which escaped best were the Second
Early, the Irish Cup, the American Early, and the Common Cup ; potatoes
raised recently from seeds, in the great majority of cases, were as subject to
the disease as those which had long been propagated from the tubers, and,
in many cases, were even more subject to it, though this fact militates noth-

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 615

ing against the desirableness or necessity of raising new varieties from seed,
but only shows that they must be raised with skill and caution, and under all
the conditions which are essential to real reinvigoration ; the extent and pro-
gress of the disease were but little influenced by either the previous culture,
the nature of the soil, or the kind of manure ; the disease did not appear, at
all events, to propagate itself by contagion, or to extend from diseased to
sound tubers after they were taken from the ground; the most effective
store-heaps were found to be small or moderately-sized ones, not too heavily
loaded with earth ; and mixtures of lime, or of other substances, with the
potatoes in the heaps, were not found to be more beneficial than the old prac-
tice of storing the potatoes alone, dry, and in good condition.

Causes. — Many predisposing causes of the disease, both old and new, near
and remote, have been assigned by theorists. Among the old ones are all the
most remarkable which were ever at any time assigned for taint and curl,
particularly degeneracy, over ripeness, bad storing, bad conditions of plant-
ing, high manuring, atmospheric influence, and epidemic miasmata ; and
some of these have also been regarded as special causes, or as immediately
producing the virus, and defining the character of the disease. ‘The chief
of the newly-alleged predisposing causes were the wetness of the summer
of 1844, the severe frost of March 1845, the great heat of the fore part of
the summer of 1845, the uncommon Juxuriance of the crop, the use of some
special manures, and a fancied novelty in the condition of the earth, or sub-
terrane heat of the soil and sub-strata. But while some of the alleged pre-
disposing causes were real enough, perhaps, and ought to suggest to all
cultivators the necessity of care and wisdom in all time to come, others are
either doubtful, vague, or wildly fantastical, and no two or more of them
can at all account for the origination of the disease, or point to any specific
or very promising remedy. ‘The special causes assigned by various theo
rists, including many of the most distinguished agriculturists, and phytolo-
gists, and organic chemists, in the world, are as numerous, as conflicting,
and, we might add, as aggregately uninstructive, as the alleged predisposing
causes. We will, however, give a brief statement of those which are most
remarkable for either their plausibleness, their learning, or the degree of
public attention which they have excited.

The abnormal chemical condition of the potato-plant, or the too early
arrival of it to chemical maturity, is modestly and suggestingly stated by
Mr. Fromberg as the most probable special cause. According to his
views, every species of plant appears to require a certain definite proportion
of substances in its organism, to make it operate regularly for its healthy
growth. Too great a deviation, exceeding a certain maximum or minimum,
will have an injurious influence upon the growth, by either accelerating or

616 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

retarding it in too great a degree. As soon as, in a plant, both the parts
that live in the air and those placed in the soil have obtained their proper
quantity of constituents, the growth is completed. After that, it will take
up nothing, or little more ; and being continually placed in the midst of sub-
stances that are always in a state of decomposition, — which was before a
requisition for the growth of the plant, — this state will, after the growth
is completed, communicate itself to the plant and its constituents. This
will be the case, even although the plant be perfectly sound (and we do
well, therefore, to remove a product from the plant when ripe and full-
grown), but much more rapidly when it is in a state of ill health. Both
the want of activity of the cells and their contents when the growth is too
languid, and their too great activity when the growth is too quick and
strong, will predispose the plant to this chemical change. The altered
energy of the action of the matter of which it is composed will continue
after the growth has ceased, but now it will proceed in another direction ;
all the peculiar properties and combinations of matter which present them-
selves during lifetime, and on whose existence the vital actions depend,
being now obtained and produced, another series of properties exhibit them-
selves, and a number of other combinations is formed. If the growth has
been too languid, these combinations, necessary for the performance of the
vital functions, will not be produced in sufficient quantity, and the altered
activity of matter will commence before the growth is completed. In case
the growth were too rapid and strong, the same increased activity of matter
will combine after the plant has reached its maximum of growth, but will
now, of necessity, take another course ; the plant absorbing nothing more,
and, consequently, vital action resting, decomposition sets in, and the degree
of its action is entirely dependent upon the activity of matter, which again
is determined by the quantity of substances fit for undergoing decomposition
in a certain space, and upon the cooperation of temperature, air, and humid-
ity. It might be of some importance to view, in connection with this, the
early appearance of the disease in 1846, although it seems uncertain whether
the time of ripening or full growth had also arrived sooner. It is a fact
that diseased potatoes sprout with remarkable rapidity, whilst the experi-
ments of some chemists show that perfectly sound potatoes remain in the
soil without any signs of sprouting being perceptible. This fact does not
contradict the above-mentioned idea, and will actually tend to corroborate it,
if it may be proved, by experience, that diseased tubers, although producing
plants that remain healthy for a time, will, however, make them inherit, as
it were, their own unnatural rapidity and luxuriance of growth, and the
consequences attending these.

The oxidation of the debilitated tissues, the change of azotized matter in

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 617

the stems, and the liability of the incrusting matter to undergo decomposi-
tion, have been suggested by Dr. Playfair, the well known Dutch chemist,
Mulder, and by others, as the most probable special causes. But the notion
of oxidation by the agency of the air acting more freely upon the organic
matter of the weakened cell-walls, does not certainly show a very great
amount of physiological knowledge, which requires that the progress of the
phenomena should be followed step by step, and which does not permit that
the mentioning of final results, even if they were correct, should serve as
an explanation. The theory of changes of azotized matter either has refer-
ence to absolute decomposition or putrefaction, —and then it is closely allied
to the oxidation theory, and partakes fully of its objectionableness, — or it
refers to the transmutation of one nitrogenous proximate principle into an-
other, and, in that case, it is contradicted by the doctrines of the protein
compounds. And as to the liability of the incrusting matter to undergo
decomposition, this, if at all probable, does not afford much explanation, and
could scarcely serve to suggest means for recovery ; for the nature of the
incrusting matter, and its relation to inorganic bases, are at present far too
little known to found a theory on their pretended action.

Putrescence, resulting remotely from atmospheric action, and proximately
from internal chemical] derangement, is supposed by Mr. Phillips to have
been the cause. ‘This theory somewhat combines the preceding ones with
the theory of a series of predisposing causes, and addresses itself very plausi-
bly to the understanding ; but it is by no means definite enough, and can
scarcely, if at all, apply to the cases of sudden and overwhelming outbreak of
the disease, and dogs not perceptibly lead to any very obvious practical
conclusion. Mr. P. states, in illustration of his theory, that the season was
unusually cold, and was marked by a continual absence of sunshine, — that
the disease was more fatal on heavy wet lands than on light dry lands, and
generally more so on wet soils than on dry soils, —that exhalation and
evaporation were at a low point during the months of July and August, —
that the plants generally throve till after the cold and wet weather set in, and
did not indicate prevailing unhealthiness till after it had continued about two
months, — and that, at the time when the most unfavorable weather appeared,
the late plants were in full work, and were forming their tubers: and he
adds, that a plant cannot elaborate its products without the direct action of
the sun’s rays; and when the vital principle ceases its action, even tempo-
rarily, a chemical one commences by an oxidation of the carbon and a liber-
ation of carbonic acid, and if this action continue, ammonia is formed. What
is the effect of this? If ammonia be formed in a plant like the potato, which
in its normal state is acid, we have not only a subversion of the condition of
the juices, but we have also an agent equal to effect all that we have seen in

52*

618 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK-

the disease. But the change is a work of time ia the plant, and necessarily
involves many phases.

A species of botrytis, which had not been before observed, and which has
been variously called B. infestans, B. fallax and B. devastatrix, was supposed,
by Professor Morren, of Liege, and by many others, to be the special cause.
Some supposed the fungus to develop itself from the interior or cellular
tissue, and to extend its ramifications through the pores or stomata in such
a way as to close them completely up, and to make the plant die from want
of perspiration and absorption ; others supposed it to make a lodgment by its
sporules from without, to feed upon the plant in the manner of an external
parasite, and to rob it to exhaustion of its nourishing sap ; and others, without
troubling themselves to explain either its habits, its nature, or the chemistry
of its action, supposed it to do its deadly work simply as a poisoner of the
plant’s juices. When first observed, the fungus was said to thrive only on
the living leaves of the potato-plant, sparing even the stems; but afterwards
it was seen to attack both the stems and the tubers; and soon, and far and
wide, it could not be traced at all in some diseased plants, and was not
traceable in others till after the disease was obviously established. ‘The
theory of the fungus was by tar the most popular one in 1845, and made the
learned part of the agricultural world ring with talk about Botrytis infestans,
but it was speedily discovered to be fallacious, and is now universally aban-
doned. Yet, though the botrytis was not the cause of the disease, it was
generally a very close attendant on it; and, under peculiar conditions of the
atmosphere, it undoubtedly acts as a very powerful agent in accelerating the
decay and havoe which the disease begins. ‘

A number of insects — particularly Eupterix solani, Eupterix picta, Thrips
minutissema, Ceraphron carpentert, a molobrus, an attica, a smynthurus, and
several aphides—were supposed, by various close observers, to be either
originators of some forms or accompaniments of the disease, or powerful
accelerators of its general progress. Swarms of some of them seem un-
doubtedly to have infested the potato crop,— probably to a degree far
greater than ever before occurred ; and, though not at all likely, in even one
instance, to have originated the disease, they must have seriously aggravated
it, and perhaps sometimes complicated it, by puncturing the plant’s organs,
abstracting its juices, and laying it widely open to chemical disarrangement,
fungal lodgment, and atmospheric action. A particular theory, however,
selected the Aphis rape or Aphis vastator, as the grand depredator, and even
eried it up as the certain and sole parent of the whole. This theory was the
most popular one in England in 1846; insomuch that, for months together,
multitudes talked incessantly of the aphis, and seemed to have gone into an
aphis-mania, and would not listen to another theory. Yet, though both facts

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 619

and philosophy now pour derision on this theory, they fully admit every
abounding aphis to be very mischievous, and loudly warn all cultivators to
adopt every preventive or remedial means against it in their power.

Common canker, or vegetable gangrene, exactly similar to the canker of
fruit-trees, and to the ‘‘ damping ”’ or ‘‘ shanking off’ of badly-wintered cauli-
flowers, and of cucumbers and melon-plants, is believed, by the eminent Mr.
Graham, to have been the true cause. According to him, the potato-plant,
having been rendered partially inert by the repellent action of cold, wet, and
gloomy weather, uncongenial to its nature as an exotic from a warm climate,
at that critical period of its growth when in the course of ordinary seasons it
would have been about to acquire a strength and hardness, but during which
time it was incapable of perfectly evaporating its redundant juices, for want
of sunshine,—they accumulated in consequence, and became vitiated by
stagnation in that crude state ; and when fine hot weather ensued afterwards,
the sudden rush of sap was too great for its debilitated tissues, and the dis-
eased fluid showed itself at the surface in various places, on the leaves and
stalks, sometimes in spots not larger than a pin’s head, at others in blotches,
which rapidly increased if the stimulus of heat was kept up; and the virus
of these spots, being of an ulcerous nature, eventually descended into the
potatoes. ‘The only effectual remedy, if it may be so called, is to pull up
the haulm entirely, as soon as the disease has seized on the stalks; cutting
off the haulm will not be so effectual, in many instances, as the lower parts
of the stalk are often as bad as the upper parts. After all, however, Mr.
Graham himself admits that the disease sometimes begins in the tubers, and
even states that it usually commences in the underground parts.

A peculiar atmospheric action, similar to what produces influenza in man,
is supposed by Liebig and Klotzsch to be the special cause. Liebig, in his
work on the Motions of the Fluids in the Animal Body, after explaining the
great importance of the cutaneous and pulmonary transpiration to the life
and health of animals, goes on to contend that in plants the transpiration
from the leaves is the chief cause, aided by the pressure of the atmosphere,
of the motion of the sap. He then refers to the old but valuable researches
of Hales, who demonstrated the importance, as well as the extraordinary
power, of the transpiration of plants, and explained the frequent blight in
hops, and other plants, by the action of an atmosphere saturated with moist-
ure, and therefore unfit to support transpiration, in suppressing the transpi-
ration from the leaves, and thus arresting the motion of the sap, which then
putrefies and leads to the death of the plant. The putrid sap becomes a fer-
ule soil for the seeds of microscopic plants, fungi, &c., and these are further
propagated by seed, so that the soil may become infested by them. Liebig
then proceeds to contend that the potato-plant is one of those which, like the

620 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

hop, suffers greatly from suppressed or impeded transpiration ; and that the
potato rot has long been known, and was even very accurately described by
Parmentier, who introduced the potato into France ; but that the peculiar
atmospheric condition to which he ascribes the disease had never till of
late years occurred over whole countries, but only locally. He considers
the real cause of the disease to be an atmosphere loaded with moisture and
cold, these being the conditions most unfavorable to evaporation; and he
shows that in 1845, and 1846, when the disease overran Europe, damp,
cold, and rainy weather followed heat and drought, just at the period of the
most luxuriant growth of the potatoes. This state of the atmosphere he
considers to be the same as that which causes influenza in the human subject,
by suppressing the cutaneous transpiration. He further shows that the very
life of a plant depends on the resistance it offers to the destructive influences
of the atmosphere; and that the life and health of plants depend on the
equilibrium of external causes, only one of which, — the state of the soil, —is
much in the power of the agriculturist. One day, or a few degrees of cold,
may be decisive as to the life or death of a plant; so that it is of the utmost
importance to strengthen the plant, so as to enable it to resist the external
influences tending to destroy it. Now, Dr. Klotzsch has come to similar
conclusions, — and shows that, as the potato is cultivated for its tubers, there
is a great loss of nutrient matter if it be allowed to form flowers and fruit ;
and he concludes that if this be prevented, the nutrient matter will be sent in
the direction of the tubers and roots, and thus the plant will be strengthened,
and enabled to resist disease. He proposes, therefore, when the plants are
from six to nine inches above ground, to pinch off the ends of the stems and
branches for half an inch only downwards from the point, and to repeat this
tour weeks later. In some experiments made by him, in which the alternate
rows were treated in this way, the result was, that the rows not so treated
were straggling and sickly. and had scabby tubers, liable to rot; while the
rows so treated were bushy, luxuriant, dark-green, with very numerous
tubers, clean, and free from all disease whatever. But whatever may be
thought of the remedy, or however fair or deserving a subject of experiment
it may be as to the general strengthening of the potato-plant, the alleged
cause seems a great deal more than doubtful. ‘To say nothing of grave
physiological objections to it, the very facts on which it rests are contested.
A diminution of temperature to the extent of six or eight degrees is exceed-
ingly trivial, and must often have occurred in former years, when this disease
did not occur. Nor is the potato-plant of so delicate a texture as to be unable
to stand much greater diminution and irregularities of temperature than what
occurred in 1845. The fact that it grows equally well in the Shetland Isles,
with an average temperature of 46 3, or even in hot-houses, with a temperature

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 621

of thirty or forty degrees higher, must satisfy any one that the temperature of
1845, though undoubtedly lower. than usual, and irregular in its progression,
eannot account for the failure. ‘The heat of 1846, too, when the disease was
more virulent and extensive than in 1845, instead of being below the average,
was actually a little above it; and the fall of rain, as ascertained at a great
many places, though unusually fitful, and sometimes exceedingly heavy, was
not aggregately much above the average, and did not anywhere produce an
excess of cloudiness, or any material excess of moisture.

An atmospheric influence of some less specific or more diffusive kind than
that contended for by Liebig and Klotzsch has been regarded by many dis-
tinguished British agriculturists as the cause. But the views entertained
respecting it are at once various, conflicting, and vague. Some say that it
was merely a decrease in the temperature about the time of ripening of the
tuber, by which this disease was caused. Now, in 1846, it returned at a
much earlier period than in 1845. Was the time of ripening hastened? and if
so, by what cause? And is there any evidence that such a decrease in tem-
perature took place in 1846? or that it existed everywhere in 1845? Other
defenders of the same theory assume that it was the sudden change of wet
and cold to hot weather by which this calamity was occasioned; and
others state, in addition, that the unripe condition of the seed from the
former year, and the protracted cold of the ensuing winter, preventing the
due preparation of the land, were either the aggravating or the chief causes
of the disease. Did these circumstances occur in 1846, and were they
general wherever the disease prevailed? If we further come to the man-
ner in which this atmospheric influence is said to have acted, then we meet
again several vague expressions, and find that unproved things are taken
for granted. Some speak of the organism of the potato having become
repleted with moisture, and, therefore, the pores being checked by some
of the above circumstances, exceedingly liable to undergo putrefaction.
Others are of opinion, that one constituent of the organism of the potato has
been produced to the disadvantage, at the expense of, or at Jeast in greater
proportions than the others; and that this, no matter in what way, has been
the cause of a weakened organism, and consequently of the disease. Others,
again, explain the action of the atmosphere as merely serving as a vehicle to
myriads of minute seeds of fungi, which, when the air is in a comparative
rest, should be enabled to enter into the minute pores or stomata, which
exist chiefly on the surface of the leaves. ‘This is merely a modification of
the fungal theory.

Some miasmatic substance, or deleterious gas, or other subtle and
unusual body in the atmosphere, is supposed, by Count Gasparin, Milne,
and others, to have been the cause. The principal, real, or alleged tacts,

622 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

appealed to in support of this theory, are that the disease was averted from
some localities by screens, shelter, and other means of protection from the
external air, — that, in the successive years of its ravages, it moved off from
some districts and countries, and made invasion upon others, — that, during
the summer and autumn of 1846, it broke out, in a progress from south to
north, on the continent and in Great Britain, as if it proceeded in a some-
what regular march, — and that it did not attack portions of fields which
were exposed to the smoke of steam-engines and of copper-works. It is
inferred from the last of these facts that the noxious substance was some
acrid gas or vapor capable of being neutralized or altered in its nature by
chlorine, common smoke, and the fumes of arsenious and sulphurous acids ;
and, in support of this view, an experiment of Professor Christison is cited
showing that sulphurous-acid gas, when mixed with atmospheric air in the
minute proportion of one part to nine thousand, injures the leaves of a
mignonette, of a laburnum, and of a larch-tree, placed in it for forty
hours. But, though the gaseous or miasmatie theory accords well with
some of the phenomena and circumstances, it seems violently incompatible
with others. A peculiar state of the electricity of the atmosphere is sup-
posed by some persons to have been the cause. Electricity is now known
to act a powerful part in all normal vegetation; ordinary electricity acts
constantly, in seeming concurrence with all the chemical processes of
decomposition and recombination, both upon plants and within them;
extraordinary electricity, or great and sudden disturbances of the normal
electric conditions of the atmosphere, or of the normal relations between the
electricity of the air and the electricity of the earth, seem to produce effects
analogous to those of either invigorating or overwhelming excitement; and
the electric phenomena of a large portion of the period of both 1845 and
1846, throughout which the potato disease broke out and spread, were not a
little remarkable for at once singularity, unsettledness, violence, and aggre-
gate duration. The results of an experiment in electro-culture, reported to
the Royal Dublin Society, were also most arresting ;— the rods had been
put up, according to Dr. Forster’s method, in a remote part of a potato-field,
in order to test their effect upon the invigoration of the crop,—and they
were afterwards neglected or forgotien, in consequence of the apparent seizure
of the whole field with the potato disease ; — but when the spot which they
protected came eventually to be examined, all the potatoes in it were found
to be sound and excellent, while those of the rest of the field had died and
rotted. Other remarkable facts, directly ascribable to electric influence, or
apparently resulting from it, or controlled by it, were observed ; and several
theories corresponding to them, but widely differing as to both the modus
operand: of the electric influence and the most suitable or effective means

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 623

of averting deleterious effects, were formed and advocated, and have been
received more or less extensively as plausible. The present state of scien-
tific knowledge, however, is far too obscure to enable any man to follow out
a speculation on the supposed connection of peculiar electric conditions with
the originating of disease in plants; and the utmost which the speculation
about electricity and the potato can do, is to suggest a hope, that in some
more advanced stage of the rapidly-careering progress of scientific discovery,
a subject which is now so mysterious and bewildering may come to be per-
fectly explained.

Remedies. — We have now gone over all the chief and most plausible
theories ; and, since the result is unmixed uncertainty or utter confusion, we
might seem to have had all our labor for worse than nothing. But, when it is
seen how entirely the most distinguished savans have been baflled, and how
completely all science and experience and observation have been stultified, by
the potato disease, all persons must readily asseut to the suggestion that
the potato ean no longer be depended on as an extensive and staple article of
sustenance for the human family, and that its loss must be made up by the
substitution of another and more reliable vegetable production. Whatever
others may say or think, it is certain that, until the cause of this disease is
known, no efficacious remedy can reasonably be expected to be found. It
is the department of science to proceed from fixed points, from causes into
effects ; and every other way is hardly deserving of any other name than that
of empiricism. We would go further still, and say, that even although the
cause were duly known, however indispensable this may be, we could not,
however, from the defective state of our knowledge of the physiology and
pathology of plants, undertake the cure with the same confidence of success
with which the physician places himself before his patient, to attack and
overcome an illness. But still, without being acquainted with the cause of
the disease, a variety of remedies will be tried in vain, and, what is worse,
remedies which may easily injure a plant which has frequently been
unnaturally cultivated. The steeping in dilute sulphuric acid, dusting
with lime and gypsum, the application of sulphate of copper, arsenic, &c.,
may prove beneficial for the moment; but how all this will affect or alter
the nature of the potato, it is only for future experience to make out. Such
kinds of treatment will be resorted to, if we proceed upon the belief that a
fungus acts as the cause of the disease. The purpose is to kill the enemy ;
but does one always sufficiently consider that the injury intended for it may
not also affect its victim? But if we adhere to the opinion that the unfavor-
able state of the weather has been the direct cause of the disease, by — no
matter in what way — altering the functions of the plant, then there is cer-
tainly something true in Morren’s remark, that this theory, in point of

624 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

curing the disease, is dangerous in its effects upon the mass of farmers,
who, being powerless against such an enemy, may easily fall into that state
of indifference which in former times was too characteristic of their class.
The remedy which results from the application of the epidemic theory
seems certainly to be entirely in the power of the farmer, without being
attended with the injurious effects that may follow from the attempt of
destroying the parasite directly, we mean the enclosure of the potato-
fields, to prevent the supposed introduction of the imagined seeds of the
parasites by currents of air. Yet, if this remedy, as is likely, might prove
ineffectual, the opportunity of preserving the crop is gone, and the evil will
rage on undisturbed. But there is something more reasonable in the idea,
to turn the whole attention to the diseased plant itself, —to allow those
plants to be lost that are hopelessly attacked, to be cautious in attempting
to employ the legs diseased for seed, and to be satisfied with employing
what has hitherto escaped, either of fine or of coarse varieties. If this be
accompanied with judicious cultivation, — if sound seed, chiefly from
varieties that have suffered least, be planted in soils similar to those where
the disease has least prevailed, — and if the methods be imitated of those
who have had small or moderate, but comparatively sound crops, — as well
in regard to treatment, kind and quantity of manure, and period of applica-
tion, as to depth of planting, distance between the plants, and time and
mode of cutting, — then something is put into the power of the farmer,
which, being faithfully copied from the prescriptions of nature, may justify
the persevering man in expecting a slow but gradual and continual remedy,
and recovery of what has been lost.

A method was discovered, about the year 1840, by M. Zauder, of evading
the attacks of all potato diseases, by raising full-grown tubers from seed in
one season ; and this method was reported by Mr. Hogan to the meeting
of the British Association at Oxford, and was ascertained, from his personal
observation of it in two widely separated localities in Germany, to have
proved perfectty efficient as respected its yearly or current success, yet was
declared to need confirmation and improvement, by many experiments, in
various places, and under various circumstances, before it could be relied
on for rendering seedlings healthy or disease-proof, in years subsequent to
their being produced. The statement of M. Zauder himself, in his own
language, is as follows :—I first raised potatoes from seed seven years ago.
I sowed an eighth of an ounce, and obtained nearly seven sacks of full-
grown, perfectly sound potatoes, although in the same year almost all the
potatoes in the same neighborhood were affected by pock-mark and dry-rot.
I have regularly raised potatoes from seed ever since, and they have remained
sound during the whole time ; and in the year 1845 when the disease had

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 625

spread over al] Europe, and attained the greatest virulence in this neighbor-
hood, those potatoes which I had previously raised from seed, as well as
those of the preceding year, continued perfectly exempt from disease. I
have given potatoes raised from seed to others, and those have also remained
perfectly free from the universally prevailing disease. From an ounce of
seed may be raised upwards of fifty ordinary-sized sacks of potatoes. The
seed is saved in the following manner: the berries should be gathered in
autumn, before the frost sets in, and be preserved in a dry place, where frost
cannot reach them, until the end of January, when the berries should be
broken by the hand, and placed in a tub or other vessel, for six or eight
days, to ferment ; water should then be thrown on them and well stirred, in
order to separate the pulp and husks from the seed, which should then be
dried and cleaned, and kept in a warm, dry place, watil the middle of March.
At the latter time, or in the beginning of April, the seed should be thinly
sown in a hot-bed, and by the middle of May there will be fine healthy
plants, which may be put out into the field; care should be taken to put
them out before they form tubers, and the seed-hed should be kept moder-
ately moist while they remain in it. They should be planted out after rain,
and be put at about the same distance from one another as potatoes gener-
ally stand in the field.
SMUT.

Description. — This is a disease of the ears of growing grain, filling the
grain with a fine, sooty-looking powder, in the room of farina. It arises
entirely from two minute coniomycetous fungi,—-the Uredo segetum and the
Uredo feetida; but it attacks all sorts of corn grain, and presents a great diver-
sity of appearance, and bears a number of popular names, and has been erro-
neously ascribed, by all classes of cultivators, to a great diversity of causes,
Some farmers, seeing only a very few ears of a crop perceptibly affected with
smut, regard the evil as of small consequence, and are totally unaware that
when no more than one smutted ear can be found in a sheaf, the straw of
the apparently sound plants may want so much as one third of its average
weight, and the grain so much as three sevenths ; and other farmers, who
may have a correct opinion enough of the mischievousness of smut, are so
misled by false notions of its cause, as either to reject all suitable prevent-
ives and remedies of it, or to adopt them empirically, and without sufficient
. confidence and vigor.

Causes and Phenomena.— Some of the many erroneous causes which have
been assigned for smut have no connection with it whatever ; and others
are mere contingencies, which either aggravate its symptoms or accelerate
its progress. One alleged cause is, deficient fecundity, in consequence either
of the pallen being washed away with rains, or of its undergoing some

o3 2P

626 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

chemical change of a putrefactive nature ; but smut is found to affect the
organs of fructification, and either to impair or to destroy them, long before
the pollen can be formed. Another alleged cause, sanctioned, long ago, by
the distinguished Jethro Tull, is humidity of the atmosphere, or the preva-
lence of fogs, or the bursting out of intense sunshine while the crop is in a
moist condition ; but this notion has been disproved by some carefully con-
ducted appeals to experiment, and is disproved also by the general fact that
smut is sometimes observable in an early stage of the plant’s vegetation, long
before it has escaped from the leafy envelopes. A third alleged cause is,
excessive moistness of the soil, —and certainly this, though not a cause, is a
very powerful provocative, insomuch that well-drained and thoroughly aerated
soils are incomparably freer from attacks of smut than wet ones; but the
disease occurs on even the driest land, and may often be observed as rife in
the dry parts of a field as in the wet parts. A fourth alleged cause, sanc-
tioned by such names as Somerville, Walker, and Linneus, is the hatching
and feeding of minute insects ; but this opinion has been refuted by express
and searching observation, and may be exploded also by the general fact
that acari and aphides, and other minute insects, feed more or less on all sorts
of plants, whether affected by smut or not, and almost always abound on
decaying vegetable matter, or on plants which are in a diseased or enfeebled
condition. A fifth alleged cause is, the abrasion of the seed-corn in the
process of threshing ; but seeds threshed in exactly the same way run to
smut in some seasons, and do not run to it in others ; and numerous grains
of wheat of different sizes have been experimentally bruised with a ham-
mer, previous to sowing, and have not been found to produce smutted plants.
A sixth cause alleged is, monstrosity of embryo ; but male flowers, or male
parts of flowers, as well as female ones, are liable to smut, and they have ne
embryo. A seventh alleged cause is, deficiency of nourishment, occasioned
by poverty of soil, or by crowdedness of crop ; but diseases closely akin to
smut attack the fructification of some perennial plants, whose roots and
stems, from year to year, are so vigorous as to indicate the presence of
ample nutrition. An eighth alleged cause is, fermentation within the ears
of corn, occasioned by natural humidity, or by excessive slowness of devel-
opment and deficiency of evaporation ; but, if this were a true cause, it
would account for the appearance of smut only after the seeds begin to be
formed, and might be expected always to produce the disease in far greater
extent than it is generally found to exist. Most other alleged causes are
akin to some of those already named, or are exceedingly fanciful, or con-
found smut with some other and widely different diseases.

The two species of fungi which produce smut, or whose spores constitate
the fine, powdery, sooty-looking substance of the disease, possess a some-

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 627

what close resemblance to each other, and are usually described under one
general name ; yet not only have they separate specific characters, but they
make specifically different developments in grain plants, and produce essen-
tially different economical effects on crops; and they therefore require to
be separately studied, and distinctively understood. The Uredo segetum is
much more minute than most other coniomycetous fungi which attack gra-
mineous plants ; and, in particular, is not half the size of Uredo fetida. Its
spores are so extremely small that not fewer than seven millions eight hun-
dred and forty thousand would be required to cover one square inch. It first
80 injures the interior portions of the flowers of the plants which it attacks
as to render them abortive ; it next makes the pedicels or little stalks of the
florets swell and become very fleshy ; it next consumes the whole of this
fleshy mass ; and it finally comes through the epidermis, and appears be-
tween the chaff-scales in the form of a black, soot-like powder, and looks as
if adhering, by means of some gummy substance, to the young ear. It oper-
ates alike on wheat and barley and oats, and is essentially the same in
them all; but it differs widely in aggregate coherence upon wheat and
barley, —and differs also in the microscopic appearance of its spores, — but
probably owes the differences entirely to the different action of the matrices
in which it grows. It commonly attains maturity some weeks before the
crop which it infests is ready for the sickle ; and it then is a light, loose
powder, resembling very fine lampblack, and is swept away and scattered
by the winds, so that, even when it has made great havoc upon a crop, it is
seldom seen to any considerable extent at the time of harvest. It has some-
times been found to attack the leaves and the culms of corn-plants; but, in
general, it attacks only the ear, and this it completely destroys. It is com-
paratively rare in wheat, and does not seem to occur at all in rye; but is
very common in barley, and still more so in oats. It has also been observed
in several of the forage grasses. Some farmers absurdly think that a little
of it in the barley crop is a good sign; and most regard it as far less mis-
chievous than Uredo fetida. But, in so far as it exists, it is always and
entirely a desolating evil ; and it both escapes the observation of superficial
observers, and eludes some of the common methods of preventing or extir-
pating it, by the early maturation and profuse dispersion of its spores ; and
though really a less evil, comparatively, than Uredo fetida, it is a much
greater one absolutely than most farmers suppose.

Grain containing some mixture of smut has not been observed to injure
fowls who eat it; and yet, the straw of smutted plants is asserted to be dis-
tasteful to cattle. The effect of the fungus upon the wholesomeness of crops,
in fact, is little understood, and does not seem to have been tested by any
good published experiments; yet it may be pretty closely estimated by

628 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

reference to the known chemical composition of smutted grain. Chemical
analysis has demonstrated that the Uredo segetum effects an entire decom-
position of the vegetable constituents of the grain it infects, the saline con-
stituents of the grain remaining nearly unaltered. Parmentier, Cornet,
Girod Chautrans, Foureroy, and Vauguelin, have successively examined it;
and the result of their researches is, that smutted grains of wheat are com-
posed, first, of about one third their own weight of a green, butyraceous,
fetid, and acrid oil; second, nearly one fourth of a vegeto-animal sub-
stance, perfectly similar to that which comes from putrid gluten; third, a
black coal, one fifth of their weight, similar to that which is found in all
remnants of putrefied organic compounds; fourth, free phosphoric acid,
amounting scarcely to more than .004 of the smut, —and fifth, phosphates of
ammonia, magnesia, and lime, in the proportions of a few thousandths. It
is stated that, in one examination of putrefied gluten, characters were found
very similar to those of the smut of wheat ; and that the products of the one
are so like those of the other, as to render it difficult, in certain cases, not
to confound them together. Jt requires a man to be well practised in chem-
ical experiments, to discern the slight differences that exist between these
two putrefied matters, because the differences are only delice shades, not
easily discernible. The contagion attacks especially the gluten, and
precedes, — indeed, prevents, — the formation of the starch; since we know
positively that this fecula, no traces of which are found in the smut of wheat,
suffers no alteration from that septic process, which so powerfully attacks
the glutinous substance.

The Uredo fatida occurs only in the grain of wheat, and is a well-known
and much dreaded disease. It may be detected in the young seed, even in
the very earliest states of the flower-bud ; and when fully ripe, it most
frequently occupies the whole interior of the grain. The earliest period at
which M. Bauer discovered it within the cavity of the ovule of a young plant
of wheat was sixteen days before the ear emerged from the base, and about
twenty days before the sound ears, springing from the same root, were in
bloom. At that early stage, the inner cavity of the ovum is very small,
and, after fecundation, is filled with the albumen or farinaceous substance of
the seed and already occupied by many young fungi, which, from their jelly-
like root or spawn, adhere to the membrane which lines the cavity, and
from which they can be easily detached, in small flakes, with that spawn.
In that state, their very small pedicels may be distinctly seen. At first, the
fungi ure of a pure white color, and when the ear emerges from its base,
the ovum is much enlarged, but still retains its original shape ; and, the
fungi rapidly multiplying, many of them have then nearly come to maturity,
assumed a dark color, and, having separated from the spawn, lie loose in

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 629

the cavity of the ovum. The infected grains continue growing, and the
fungi continue to multiply, till the sound grains have attained their maturity
and full size, when the infected grains are easily distinguished from the
sound ones, by their being generally larger and of a darker green color ;
and, if opened, they appear to be filled to excess with these dark-colored
fungi. But the grains infected with the Uredo fetida very rarely burst, and
these fungi are seldom found on the outside of the grain; but if a grain
be bruised, they readily emit their offensive smell, which is worse than that
from putrid fish. When the sound grains are perfectly ripe and dry, and
assume their light-brown color, the infected grains also change, but toa
somewhat darker brown, retaining, however, the same shape which the
ovum had at its formation, the rudiments of the stigma also remaining un-
altered. The spores which fill the grain constitute a fine, black, disgust-
ing, fetid powder, and amount to about four millions in a single grain, and
may be easily distinguished and examined through a microscope, and have
then the appearance of articulated globules growing in a bundled manner
upon threads ; but the sporules which they contain, and which propagate
the smut in the same general way in which seeds propagate phenogamous
plants, are so surpassingly minute as to be scarcely distinguishable under
very high powers of the microscope, appearing then only like a faint cloud
or vapor in a puffy escape from the spores.

The Uredo fetida not only destroys all the grains or plants which it
directly attacks, but greatly deteriorates the value of the sound part of the
general crop. The disgusting odor which it emits may be perceived on
passing through a field where it prevails; and becomes cohesive to the
fingers, and intolerable to the sense, when an infected ear or two are broken
in the hand ; and diffuses itself sufficiently through the sound grains, by the
contacts of growing and harvesting, to render the flour made from them
perceptibly malodorous, and comparatively unfit for bread. Ready purchas-
ers, however, are found among the manufacturers of gingerbread, &c., in
some countries, who have discovered that the treacle, and whatever else
they mix up with it, effectually disguise the odor of the fungus ; and while
such a mode of employing the tainted flour would be perfectly unobjection-
able if the odor were innoxious, it becomes censurable and wicked when
good reason exists for suspecting the odor to be seriously unwholesome.

The sporules of both Uredo segetum and Uredo fetida were long believed
and have been proved to find their way into corn-plants, by entering their
spongioles with the moisture, and ascending their interior with the sap.
There is little doubt, according to Johnson, but that the mode in which
smut is imparted to the plant is by its roots imbibing the extremely minute
seeds of the fungus along with the moisture of the soil ; and this opinion is

53 *

630 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

confirmed by the observation that the disease is most prevalent when the
winter has been mild, and the spring wet, — for in such seasons the abundant
moisture passing through the soil is most likely to convey the seeds to the
mouths of the plant’s radical fibres. The distinguished Mr. Sidney
remarks, that, though the surmise of most observers has been that the
sporules enter by the roots and circulate in the plant, still, no one has yet
seen them grow ; nor would this be the normal mode of growth. The
spores themselves are undoubtedly too large to enter either by the stomata
of the leaves or the spongioles of the roots. Some ingenious experiments
have been made, that appear to establish the theory that these contents of
the spores do enter the plant in the way suspected, and grow. The mode
of proceeding was to immerse some seeds of wheat in water containing bunt.
One of the first appearances was a curious mould, with peculiar spores, that
sprung upon the spores of bunt. The plants which came up from these
seeds were evidently affected ; but no communication whatever could be
traced between the cells of these plants and the shoots thrown out by the
spores. No intrusion whatever of the mycelium developed by the bunt-
spores into the wheat could be discovered. This looks, therefore, as if the
fine cuntents of the spores do certainly propagate the fungus. Professor
Henslam states, that, although the bunt-fungus confines its attacks to the
young seed, it seems to be a condition essential to its propagation that it
should be introduced into the plant during the early stages of its growth, and
that its sporules are most readily absorbed by the root during the germina-
tion of the seed from which the plant has sprung. It has been clearly
proved that wheat-plants may be easily infected, and the disease thus prop-
agated, by simply rubbing the seeds, before they are sown, with the black
powder, or spores, of the fungus. It is also as clearly ascertained that, if
seeds thus tainted be thoroughly cleansed, the plants raised from them will
not be infected; and this fact is now so well established, that the practice
of washing or steeping seed-wheat in certain solutions almost universally
prevails. ;
Preventives. —'The chief preventive of smut in wheat is the steeping of the
seed-corn in some suitable solution. The spores which, at the time of thresh-
ing, are dispersed from smutted ears in the form of a fine powder, and which
attach themselves to the sound grains, adhere with considerable obstinacy by
means of an oily or greasy matter in their own substance, and cannot be thor-
oughly cleaned away except by means either of an alkali which shall combine
with the oily matter and convert it into soap, or of some powerful substance,
which shall be adverse enough to vegetable life to kill the spores, and yet
not so adverse as to kill or injure the grains. The substances most com-
monly employed in alkaline steeps are lime, and salts of soda, potash, and

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 631

ammonia ; and those of a killing kind most commonly employed are arsenic,
sulphate of copper, nitric acid, muriatic acid, and sulphuric acid. The use
of poisons, however, — particularly violent ones, —is altogether unnecessary,
and very dangerous, and not a little culpable; and the use even of exces-
sively pungent substances, which are not strictly poisonous, is never so
politic, and perhaps never so efficient, as that of the alkalies, or of common
salt, or of some mixture of saline substances.

The experiments of Mr. Bevan indicate that lime-water is the most
effective of these preparations ; and if this be adopted, it may be prepared
by mixing one pound of fresh lime with three gallons of boiling water,
allowing these to stand for two hours, and the clear liquor then to be poured
off, and immediately used. In this liquid the wheat should be soaked for
twelve hours, stirred twice or thrice during the time, and then mixed, upon
a floor, with the powder made by pouring three gallons of boiling water
upon five pounds of lime. He remarks further, that he has had no experi-
ence of the effects of lime-water as a preventive of the smut; but, with
stale urine and a solution of common salt, numerous and expensive experi-
ments were made, the results being, without exception, favorable, and nearly
similar; and this being the case, a preference is to be given to common
salt, as being decidedly the best in all material points. ‘The mode observed
to be the most effective is to wash the seed with pure water, pouring this
off with al] the floating grains, and then allowing the seed to soak for twelve
hours in a solution of common salt, having a strength, or specific gravity,
sufficient to float a common hen’s egg. A solution of sulphate of soda, in
cooperation with an application of lime, was found by M. de Dombasle,
after many experiments, to be the most efficient steep. The solution
requires about 173 lbs. of the sulphate in 22 gallons of water; and as this
salt does not very readily dissolve, the solution ought to be commenced a
day or so before it is wanted, and frequently stirred, till all the salt is dis-
solved. The grain is to be formed in heaps on the floor, which are to be
completely moistened with the above wash, by means of a watering vessel.
During the time the wash is being poured over the heaps of grain, they
must be kept constantly stirred about, by means of wooden shovels, till the
whole be perfectly moist, which is known by the wash running from the
heaps after they are sufficiently saturated. After the grain is well moist-
ened, lime, in powder, is to be immediately thrown over the heaps, in the
proportion of nearly 44 lbs. to the 22 gallons of grain; this is done grad
ually, while the grain is to be turned over in every direction, so that the
whole may be intimately combined. When this is done, the grain may be
either sown immediately, or kept for some days, in which case it may be
turned over every three or four days.

632 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

The use of any kind of steep, however, is a preventive of smut only as
propagated by the adhesion of spores to the grains of the seed-corn, and can
have no efficiency whatever against the germination of spores which lie
lodged in the soil independently of the seed-corn. Mr. Johnson remarks,
in addition, that, although it is very apparent that the smut is generally
imparted to a wheat crop by the agency of the seed sown, yet he is by no
means of the opinion that this is the only source of infection. He had kept
ears of wheat, that were covered and destroyed by the Uredo, during more
than twelve months, in a situation where they experienced the vicissitudes
of temperature during all the seasons, unprotected by more than the paper
envelope in which they were suspended in an out-building. Yet, when the
Uredo that had been thus exposed was mixed with healthy, well-washed
seed-wheat, this produced diseased plants in a triplicate proportion more
numerous than that not so mixed. ‘This experiment demonstrates that frost
and drought, acting in concert with a damp atmosphere, do not destroy the
vegetating power of the Uredo’s seed. Such being the fact, why may not
this seed remain in the soil, ready to impart the plague? We know that,
owing to its lightness, this seed floats buoyantly in the air, and may be car-
ried by winds to distant soils, which, in the autumn of the same year, before
any extremity of cold has been endured, will have to bear the wheat crop
for the following harvest. ‘The opinion that the soil is one source of infec-
tion is sustained by the fact that fields in the vicinity of the sea are rarely
injured, and never extensively, by the ravages of the smut. Such soils are
impregnated more than any other with common salt, and the effect of this
saline compound upon the Uredo has been noticed already. The spores of
Uredo segetum, too, are so generally shed and dispersed before the har-
vesting of the crop, that they may be supposed to lie lodged in immense
numbers in every part of the field, or farm, or district, where they were
produced; and even in so far as they adhere to the grains of barley and
oats in the same manner in which those of Uredo fetida adhere to the grains
of wheat, they have such a peculiarly strong hold in connection with the
integuments of these grains, that they cannot very readily be reduced or
killed by means of steeps. As regards some smutted wheat-lands, there-
fore, and especially as regards all smutted barley-lands, and all smutted oat-
lands, other preventives and remedies must be brought into requisition,
and should be such as to secure the utmost possible cleanness of both the
seed-corn and the land, and will, after all, be found incompetent to effect an
entire cure. The obtaining of seed-corn for any farm from other and dis-
tant soils is recommended by Tull, Donat, Lignerolle, and others; but,
however beneficial this may be for securing other desirable effects, it can be:

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 633

useful in regard to smut only when the seed-corn is brought from a dis-
trict remarkably free from that disease. All the preventives and remedies
which address themselves to the state of the land, or consist in special
processes or methods of culture, are the same in the case of smut as in
that of mildew.

COTTON ROT.

Description.—This disease makes its first appearance as a small, dark
green, circular spot, on the outside of the boll, and many of them are fre-
quently present on a single boll at the same time. The progress of the
disease varies — being sometimes rapid, and at other times tardy — most
probably influenced by the temperature of the atmosphere, or the condi-
tion of the plant; but, with the advance of the disease, the spots change
color, and gradually assume a blackish-brown hue, until the entire boll
is affected. If suddenly checked, as sometimes occurs from an unex-
plained cause, only a portion of the boll will be discolored. In the first
case the disease has penetrated to the centre of the boll, which ferments,
and pours out a white, frothy liquor; after which putrefaction follows,
involving the destruction of the seed and immature cotton, when the rind,
or exterior coating of the boll, being exhausted of its juices, hardens and
turns black. When suddenly checked in its operation, the disease will
be found to have only partially injured some of the bolls, and the interior
of others not at all—these will mature and expand. ‘This, however, is
seldom the case, as the boll is subject to a succession of attacks until it
is finally destroyed ; being liable to the ravages of the disease from the
period of its first formation, until that stage of perfection is reached
which immediately precedes development.

Cause.—All research has hitherto failed to ascertain the originating
cause, and, consequently, no remedy can be intelligently applied. It has
been supposed to be occasioned by the larvae of a small insect, hatched
from eggs deposited in the boll at an early period of its development,
which, by feeding on the seeds, produce the disease; and a boll, thus
affected, when divided, usually contains a varied collection of small in-
sects in different stages of metamorphosis. On the other hand, it is urged
that the presence of insects in the rotted boll proves nothing more than
that they probably crept into it for food and shelter after it had been
destroyed by the disease. The insect theory does not seem to be borne
out by the result of close observations, which prove that, while one cotton
plant is a prey to the disease, others in the immediate vicinity are com-
paratively free and healthy ;,as many as seventeen rotted bolls having

634 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

been counted upon one plant, while its near neighbors were ‘luxuriantly
green, and unmarked by the least sign of the disease. Insects seem to
be attracted to the decaying bolls by the sap which exudes from the
wounds, and thus the effect is mistaken for the cause. Equally as un-
satisfactory is its reference to a defect in the soil, or in the manure ; for
here, again, are the advocates of this theory met by the fact, that all the
plants growing on the same soil, and similarly treated, are not affected
with the disease. Much may depend on the constitution of the plant,
derived from imperfect or immature seed; and a careful selection of well-
ripened seed, from sound and healthy plants, might do much toward
eradicating the disease.

COTTON RUST.

Description.—A parasitical fungus grows upon the stem and branches
of the plant, which exhausts the sap, and causes the leaves to wither
and fall. The leaves assume a yellow color, and are frequently spotted
with red,

Cause.—It is generally traceable to defective cultivation, and may be
remedied by adopting such a system of agriculture as will restore to the
soil its abstracted salts and phosphates.

COTTON BLIGHT.

Description. — This disease, although mistaken for rust, is of itself a
distinct affection. The leaves suddenly wither, droop, change to a brown
color, and then fall off; and the bolls shrivel and dry up. The entire
plant dies in a very short time; the pith of the root, stem, and branches,
presenting that blackish-brown appearance which usually accompanies
an advanced stage of decay.

Cause. — Experiments have proved that it is the result of planting
cotton for a series of years on the same land, and that it may be pre-
vented by a judicious rotation of crops.

SORE SHIN.

Description. — This is another affection of the cotton plant, which
makes its appearance in the early stages of its growth, during the preva-
lence of cold nights in a wet and backward spring. The bark of the
stem becomes callous, and the sap vessels are dried up, or obstructed
near the surface of the ground. If the plant continues to live, its

THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 635

growth is slow and languid, and it never regains its former strength and
vigor.

Cause.—This malady has been attributed to early planting, but it is,
doubtless, really caused by the ravages of the cotton-louse, which debili-
tates the plant by abstracting the sap.

CHAPTER XIV.
NOXIOUS INSECTS AND ANIMALS,

INSECTS WHICH LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PROP=
AGATE ON THEM — INSECTS WHICH INJURE GRAIN —INSECTS INJURIOUS
TO CULINARY VEGETABLES—INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES,
SHRUBS, AND VINES—INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS — INSECTS
INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS —INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE COTTON PLANT —
ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO CULTIVATED FIELDS.

I. INSECTS WHICH LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS,
AND PROPAGATE ON THEM.

Lice. — Among insects which continually live on domestic animals, prop-
agate on them, and, when their numbers are too great, cause serious injury
to them, the various species of lice hold the first place. These animals are
much to be dreaded when they have increased so as to produce the disease
called PAthzriasis, and when this settles into a confirmed chronic evil. In
horned-cattle lice have no particular favorite place. They run up and down
over the hody of sheep, causing a separation of the wool from the skin.
They swarm 1n every part ot swine, and even grow into the skin, muscles,
&c. They may be occasioned by dirt, insufficient food, or want of bodily
exercise, or by previous disease. The remedy prescribed is, to take a
common pair of bellows, and a bellows-pipe fixed to its side, which is to be
filled with inferior tobacco, and set fire to; one man holds the sheep between
his legs, another parts the fleece in various places, and a third blows the
tobacco-smoke on the skin, fumigating by degrees the whole body. The
sheep must be kept some time in the open air after this. Ox-lice are to be
expelled by washing with an infusion of Staphysagria powder and crushed
pepper in strong vinegar. For lice in swine, use internally the black sul-
phuret of mercury, mixed with salt, and wash the parts most infested with
arsenic acid.

Horse Bot. — The horse bot is the larva of a fly resembling a humble-bee,
with two wings. ‘I'he female lays her eggs on the shoulders, manes, and
knees of horses, which they lick off and swallow. They hatch in the
stomach, feed in the larva state all the winter on the mucilage, and in
spring are found in the horse’s stomach, sometimes in great numbers.
They resemble in size and form a date-stone, having two hooks at the fore

end, with which they adhere to the inner coat of the stomach, often pen-
(686)

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 631

etrating from 4 to 4 an inch deep into the white insensible tissue, and
become as if distorted by it. If numerous, they cause violent pain; and, as
they irritate the stomach, and extract a great deal of nourishment from the

animal, they necessarily injure digestion. The American arbor vite,
administered inwardly, and the expressed juice of the common elder, either
alone or mixed with tar, will be found effectual in protecting cattle from
bots and intestinal worms. The leaves and young shoots of the arbor vite
are to be beaten in a mortar with a little water, and the juice expressed
The horse is to take a quart, as a preventive remedy, every quarter of a
year, on an empty stomach ; and if the animal is very ill, this quantity is to
be given thrice a week. An effectual mode of preventing the introduction
of the bots into the stomach is also said to be, the washing off the eggs
from the knees, mane, and sides of the horses, or removing them with a pair
of scissors.

Fundament Bot. — The female of this bot lays her eggs on the lips of the
horse, whence they are licked off and swalluwed, and thus get into the
stomach. The bot-fly itself is half an inch long, brown, unspotted wings,
dark abdomen, with white base and reddish-yellow extremity. The larva
resembles the preceding, and is also found with it in spring in the stomach
of horses. Their color is not so red, their body has two rings less, and
their hooks are longer and sharper. ‘Their presence is known by the horse
voiding them with excrement, or by their being found on the closing muscles
of the anal opening. When thus convinced of their presence, injections of
animal oil are applied, which kill the larvae, and they are voided.

Ox Warble. — This insect is larger than the house-fly, and resembles the
humble-bee. It has brown, unspotted wings, and on the abdomen, which is
covered at the end with reddish-yellow hair, a black band. The eggs are
laid on the skin of the back of oxen, one at atime. The eggs are hatched
by the animal heat, and the larve cause swellings, generally about the size
of a pigeons egg, and are called warbles — worm-holes. The larva is
without feet is dotted on the upper surface with very small grains, which

638 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

appear under the magnifier like short, triangular, yellow prickles, which
create an irritation in the skin of the cattle, and also transport the larva to
another place, when it has left its first station. It lives in the tumor from
August till the next June, then pushes itself through and falls to the
ground. Usually only from four to five tumors are found in one beast.
Young, healthy, and fat cattle are most liable to be selected. The tumors
may in many cases contribute to the health of the cattle, but when very
numerous, the cattle grow lean, and the cows give less milk. To rid cattle
of this torment, enlarge the opening of the tumor with a knife, and press
the sides of the swelling, when the larva protrudes itself. The wound
must be kept clean, and heals without further remedy.

Red Bot. — About the size of the honey-bee ; thorax rose-colored ; wings
inspotted ; abdomen black at the base, whitish-gray, set with yellow hairs
at the further end. The female lays her eggs in the animal’s nostrils, and
the larve cause an itching in these tender parts, — frequently get into the
cavities of the gullet, and cause much pain. They feed upon the mucus
which they find in these parts, and when large enough tickle by their
crawling, and are then thrown out by the sneezing of the animal. Sheep
die when these insects are numerous in them.

Sheep Bot.—'The thorax in the winged insect is brownish-black and
dotted with white; the abdomen white, spotted with gray and black; the
forehead ash-gray, covered with many small, deep punctures; the wings
shining and dotted at the base. Lives in sheltered places, where it is
numerous in warm days. The females lay their eggs in the nostrils; more
than three or four are seldom found in one sheep, but they produce the
staggers, and torment the animal greatly. The symptoms of their presence’
are nausea, weakness, sneezing, slow pace, turning the head, holding it
down, and pushing itself against the nearest object; a shining, pus-like
matter flows from the nostrils, often adhering so firmly to the apertures as
to close them up, and cause difficulty of breathing. Besides these, dulness
and indifference, swelling of gums and mouth, ulceration and convulsions,
are produced by it. It also makes the sheep turn round frequently, exactly
as if they were infested with the hydatids, which occasion the disease
called the gid. The hydatid worm appears in lambs, much seldomer in
yearlings, and still more rarely in full-grown sheep; it causes no defluxion
from the nose, no symptoms of a disease, no sneezing, staggering, &c. ; but
the sick animal is lost without remedy. But in the disease caused by the
sheep bot, the sheep in many cases cure themselves; the lambs are only
attacked when out at pasture; and the diseased state of the pituitous
wnic of the nose is 2 clear sign that it is the sheep bot, and not the hydatid
worm, that affects them. ‘To remedy sheep thus affected, they are either

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 639

taken out alive, by trepanning the skull, as for the hydatids, or an attempt
is made, by injections into the nostril of animal oil diluted with water, tu kill
them. Do not put sheep in pastures infested with the flies of sheep bot.

Horse Fly, or Forest Fly.— The fore-part of the body is depressed ; head
triangular; abdomen large and roundish, somewhat resembling that of a
spider,— hence it has also obtained the name of spider-fly. ‘The thorax
is speckled with buff; the other parts are brown; the blunt, membraneous
wings lie crosswise over each other. It prefers the abdomen of the
animals, and attaches itself firmly to it. These flies are produced, or
increase very rapidly, on animals that are unclean, or are in bad condition ;
and as they torment the animals very much, the following remedy must be
applied, by which they can be got rid of ina day. Of mineral earth, take
8 oz., and of lard 1 lb., and make into a salve; rub it on here and there
upon the hair, working it in with a wisp of straw. After twenty-four
hours, wash off the salve with warm water in which brown soap has been
dissolved. Keep the horse from getting cold.

Sheep Tick. —'This animal has no wings. The fore part of the body is
very small ; abdomen thick-roundish, and proportionally very large. It sits
sometimes on the skin of the sheep, under the wool, and sucks itself full of
blood. Its color is pale red, the abdomen lighter, with an irregular white
line on each side, and ared spot on the back. It lays only one egg,
fastened to the wool; it is first white, then brown, and finally the perfect
insect escapes from it. As a remedy for this insect, wash the infested
sheep with a decoction of the crushed or bruised leaves of the common
maple,

Bird Spider Fly. — Scarcely half as large as the forest fly, apple-green
flat above, and has small, transparent, black-veined wings. It is found
both on large and small fowls, clings firmly to the skin under the feathers,
and annoys by its greediness for blood. It is difficult to rid the birds of this
. insect, for it runs backwards and forwards so fast that it can scarcely be
caught. It finds out the bird, even when covered with the hand, and creeps
unperceived again under the feathers. Many, that are thought to be killed
when taken from the bird, fly back immediately. They leave the bird as
soon as it is dead, as the head-louse Jeaves a human corpse. Cleanliness is
the only remedy for this insect, and frequently sweeping and whitening the
hen-house.

Il. INSECTS WHICH INJURE GRAIN.

Gibbous Ground Beetle. — This is a beetle whicn injures wheat, rye, and
barley. The eggs are laid together, and not singly, oy the mother ; and the
larve are, apparently, three years before they underyo their transformation,

640 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

The length of the full-grown larva is rather mvure than an inch; it is flat,

narrow, and nearly of equal width througnout, the head is very flatly

pressed, armed with strong forceps, like jaws. ‘Lo diminish their number,
it is recommended to catch them by the hand, which may be done by chil-
dren. ‘The common net —a linen bag, stretched on a hoop of strong wire
— may also be stretched at night on the corn, and the insects feeding on the
ears be caught in it. In the day-time they must be looked for under stones
and clods. In the autumn, when the first slight frosts set in, the farmer
should plough those fields which have had crops of wheat, barley, and rye,
as deeply as possible. Many lJarve which have by this time retired to their
winter quarters will thus be turned up in a benumbed state, and will either
be killed by the next frost or devoured by the crows and other birds in
search of food. But this ploughing should be performed for many years
successively, and by all the neighboring farmers simultaneously, or it will

not be efficacious. ‘Those fields which have been sown in autumn should

be strewn with peat-ashes— when peat is to be had, and is used as fuel —in
spring, when the supervening rains will disengage the sulphuric acid, which
will kill the insects.

German or Field Cockchaffer. — An insect injurious to the ears of wheat
and rye. lt has a square abdomen, rather flat; its whole length is half an
inch, and its breadth one fourth of an inch; the color of the wing-cases is
mostly brown, but sometimes a smal] square spot is seen at their base, and
another larger saddle-like spot of the same color in their middle; the head
and thorax of a dark-green ; the under side of the body and legs are black.
These insects are found singly, or three or four together, sitting on the
ears, and gnawing the still soft grains of rye, or of wheat. Crows, moles,
and field-mice, are its greatest eneinies. The perfect insect can only be
diminished and destroyed by picking it off the plant. Children may be
employed for this purpose, and must collect the insects in bags. The
insects must be crushed or destroyed by putting hot water on them, and
then given to the poultry, which will become very fat by feeding on them.
The hand-picking must be early in the morning, while the dew is on the
plants, as then the beetle hangs lazy and benumbed on the ears of corn.

Lined Click Beetle, — Larva, the Wire-worm.— A beetle particularly inju-
rious to oats ‘The larva of this beetle — known under the name of the
wire-worm — appears sometimes in great numbers, devastating corn by
attacking the roots. This larva is slender and linear, flat, shining, smooth,
slightly hairy, and brown. It resembles the meal-worm. The beetle is
blackish, with gray hairs; the feelers and legs are brownish-yellow, and
the wing-covers striped with gray. The best means of destroying them is
to mow the oats, and plough up the ground frequently, when crows and

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 641

other birds will pick up the larve. In Fig. 352, a is the larva of Elater
segetis ; b, under side of the terminal segment of the body ; c, the head seen
from beneath; d, perfect insect, natural size; e, magnified; f, larva of the

true wire-worm ; g, the larva of ditto, as described by some writers, being
another species.

Winter or Dart Moth. — A moth that injures winter grain. The cater-
pillar or larva of a moth, which, from its food in the larva state, is called the
winter corn-moth, is one of the most troublesome of the insect tribe. This
caterpillar attacks both the leaves and the roots of the corn; also the roots of
lettuce, turnips, and spinach. It appears generally in August, sitting quietly
on the ground in the day-time, and flying about and pairing at night. When
at rest, its wings are folded together flat over the body, and it is then nearly
an inch long, and half an inch wide. Its colors are dirty-gray, and dark
brown, or earth-color, except on the under wings, which are covered as it
sits, and which are sometimes whitish-gray, sometimes cream-eolor. On the
upper wings a faint, blackish, ringlike mark is seen, and a cone-shaped spot
on a wavy line, a kidney-shaped stain almost in the middle, and towards the
lower edge two other wavy or notched transverse lines. ‘The most simple
and certain mode of extirpating the noxious seed-eating caterpillar from the
soi] is, to repair to the fields, and collect the caterpillars as soon as they ap-
pear. The only question is, how the hand-picking is to be set about, without
spending time unnecessarily. A person unacquainted with the habits of the
creature would seek for it in vain in his fields. They lie in the day-time
under stones, clods, or buried in the earth; these must therefore be carefully
turned up, in search of the enemy. When they are changing their skins,
they come out of their lurking-places, even in the day-time, and can easily
be gathered. Immediately after sunset they come out in great numbers, and

54* 2Q

642 FARMER S HAND-BOOK.

feed greedily on the young corn. At this time, therefore, the work must be
earried on vigorously, and even till late at night, with artificial light.

White-line Dart Moth. — A moth injurious to buckwheat and autumn-sown
grain. The caterpillar is upwards of an inch long, and of the thickness of
a slender writing-quill. On the back it is dirty olive-green, with a mixture
of yellow. ‘The head is brown; the abdomen and feet are dirty-yellow. It
lives in the day-time in the earth, coming out only at night. The remedies
proposed are —hand-picking, applying a strong dressing of lime to the land
in the spring, strewing the ground with ashes, rolling the fields with heavy
rollers, and lastly, driving flocks of sheep over the field.

Botys.— A moth, the caterpillar of which is injurious to millet. It is
destroyed as follows: — As soon as the millet is reaped and carried away,
let the stubble be pulled up, and burnt in a heap, with the caterpillars in it.

Corn Moth.— A moth injurious to grain laid up in magazines. The
perfect insect or moth measures, from the head to the tips of the wings, from
six to seven lines. The body is brown, with a little white on the back ; the
head has a thick tuft of whitish hairs; eyes black; upper wings more or
less white, with brownish and dusky dots, varying in form and size. The
most decided and certain mark is a spot of the same color at the base,
followed by an almost square spot on the outer border ; behind this, in a
slanting direction, runs a band-shaped spot almost through the whole breadth
of the wings. Behind this are two dots on the anterior border, and just
above the tips of the wings a larger brown spot. The posterior border is
furnished with long brown and white mottled fringes. The under wings
are smaller and shorter, brownish, with long fringes at the posterior edge.
This insect appears as a moth in May, June, and July, in buildings where
grain is stored; it rests in the day-time, and only flies about at night, attack-
ing rye, oats, barley, and wheat. The remedies proposed are —to fill up the
eracks and holes, sprinkle the floor with a mixture of strong white-wine
vinegar and salt before laying up the corn, sweeping the floor and walls
thoroughly before stowage, and, if the moth has laid her eggs on the grain,
common salt may be mixed with the grain. Other remedies are recom-
mended, such as garlic, tobacco, wormwood, hemp, hops, elder-flowers,
turpentine, and brimstone.

Corn Weevil. — A small insect, linear-shape, narrow rostrum, the elytra
marked by impressed lines of dots. The female deposits her eggs upon corn
in granaries, and the young larva at once burrows into the grain, of which it
eats the interior. Various plans have been suggested for its destruction ;
perfect ventilation and a constant shifting of the grain are great preservatives.

Hessian 'ly.— A small midge, injurious to wheat. Its body is covered
with short black hairs; the thorax is much arched, smooth, and shining ;

NOXLOUS INSETS. 643

the scutellum projecting, rounded posteriorly ; the breast sometimes golden-
yellow ; the abdomen brownish; the wings blackish ; the golden-yellow of
the base is sometimes continued to the veins, where it appears lighter, and
disappears by degrees about the middle. The halteres are yellowish-white ;

Fig. 353.

the legs golden-yellow at the base of the thigh. The female has a black
streak on the abdomen. The larva is spindle-shaped, and whitish; the
posterior end suddenly diminished ; the head bent inwards, and transparent
above. A short line is remarked within, which is the intestinal canal. It
is dirty white below ;. in younger specimens this coloring appears like nine
spots on each side, and has a row of still smaller spots in the middle. When
the larve are fully grown, they unite in regular segments round the wheat ;
they are then provided with very small hooks or notches towards the head.
Their length is three twentieths of an inch, and their breadth one twentieth.
The perfect insect appears in June, and perhaps later; the female lays from
one to eight eggs, in the autumn. The only practicable mode of destroying
this insect is to wait till the grain is reaped, and then burn the stubble in
which the pupz lie concealed. If it should be impossible to do this, sow the
fields next year with any other grain than wheat ; better, perhaps, not to sow
wheat anywhere near them, that the flies may not carry their eggs there.
Wheat Midge.— This is another small species of midge, injurious to
wheat. When the wheat is in blossom, it is sometimes attacked by a small
fly, of an orange-color, which lays its eggs in the middle of the blossom.
When the eggs are hatched, the larve prevent the fructification of the grains,
probably by eating the pollen. The perfect insect slightly resembles the
common midge, but is smaller. The body is orange-yellow ; the wings clear
and transparent, and hairy at the edges ; the eyes are black ; the antenne neck-
lace-shaped, longer than the thorax, and the feet rather long. The smallnesa
of this insect, both in its larva and perfect state, with the circumstance of tha

644 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

destruction of the wheat when it is in blossom, allows of but little that can
be effected by human aid. The safest and almost only certain means of

Fig. 354.

diminishing such an evil, for the next year, consists in not sowing wheat
again on the same field, nor in its neighborhood. ‘The larve quit the wheat
in August, and pass the winter in the ground.

Il. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CULINARY VEGETABLES.

Spring Beetle or Skip-jack.— Gardeners remark, often to their great
annoyance, that many newly-transplanted lettuces begin suddenly to wither
and perish; this happens chiefly ip spring and summer. If we seek for the
cause, we find in the roots of the withering plants a worm, which is the
larva of one of the Elateride, which much resembles the meal-worm. It eats,
by degrees, the root of the lettuce as far as the collar from which the leaves
are developed. It is light yellow, from six to seven lines long, of the thick-
ness of a pigeon’s quill; its body is cylindrical, somewhat flatly compressed
at the head, rather pointed behind, with strong, black, and shining jaws.
The pupa or nymph is shorter than the larva, paler in color, and thicker.
The-beetle, which is developed from the pupa in fourteen days, is from four
to five lines long, one and a half lines broad, and has the usual form of spring
beetles; it is slightly curved; head and thorax dark-brown; wing-cases
yellowish, striped, with dots; the feelers are slender, notched, and yellow-
ish-brown ; the under side of the body also brownish. ‘To get rid of this
pest, pull up every plant that begins to wither, and kill the enemy within,
or in the earth near the plant.

Asparagus Beetle. — There are two kinds. One is blackish-green, the
thorax red with two black dots, yellow wing-cases, the suture and three
spots united to it on both sides black; and the other, called the Twelve-
spotted Leaf-beetle, is red, the wing-cases lighter, each having six black

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 645

dots ; the horns, eyes, breast, edge of the abdomen, tips of the thighs and
palpi, black. The first-named is called the asparagus beetle. The larva is
spindle-shaped, flat beneath, arched, fleshy, wrinkled, covered with single
hairs, bordered at the sides, of an olive-color ; the head and legs black. ‘The
only remedy is to pick off and kill both beetles and larve.

Earth-flea Beetles. —This name is applied to several species of very small
beetles, one of which is called the turnip-fly. They make great leaps, by
means of their thick hind-legs; color generally shining-green, with a brown
or yellowish hue. They attack cabbage, cauliflower, colewort, radish,
cresses, flax, tobacco, hops, sainfoin, and summer and winter turnips.
Shade, coolness, and rainy weather, are the surest protection of young plants
from its attacks. The remedies are various. Pour boiling water on a hand-
ful of fresh or dry wormwood, and let it stand from twelve to twenty-four
hours, to get cold; then put the plants that are to be planted out into the
decoction, with their leaves downwards as far as the stem, so that their roots
may not be wet, and then put into a cellar, or some cool place, and in six to
ten hours afterwards, they may be planted without risk of attack. Young
plants and seed-beds may also be sprinkled with this infusion. Plants may
also be rescued, by applying road-dust after dew has fallen. These two
modes of remedy are also applicable to field cultivation.

Mole Cricket, Churr Worm, Jarr Worm, Eve Churr, or Earth Crab. —
This insect is very destructive to culinary vegetables, meadows, and corn-
fields. When full-grown the mole cricket measures nearly two inches in
length, and four lines in breadth. Its color is dark-brown ; head oval, small
and longish ; two bristle-shaped and strong feelers ; thorax covered with fine
woolly hair; wings very broad and triangular, when expanded ; abdomen
soft; the two fore feet proportionally short, but broad and strong, adapted to
dig in the earth. The surest and most efficacious remedy is to destroy the
brood in June or July. First pour water into their holes, and then a few
drops of any sort of oil; they leave their holes when they feel the water,
and when touched by the oil, die immediately. Also, pits may be dug, two
or three feet deep and a foot wide; after the frost, all the mole crickets will
collect in these for shelter, when they may be destroyed in heaps.

Painted Field Bug.— A dangerous enemy to the cabbage tribe, particu-
larly in dry summers, since in its larva, as well as in its perfect state, it
pierces the leaves, till it makes them like a sieve. The perfect insect is
about one fourth of an inch long, and only a little less broad, and rather
flat. Its ground-color is red or white, its upper side spotted with dark-green ;
head dark-green, bordered at the sides with red or white before the eyes,
On the wing-covers, or upper wings, the dark color prevails; they are
bordered with red or white as far as the terminal third part; this border is

646 FARMER’S HAND-BOOR.

wavy, and has a green spot. The under side is reddish or whitish; the
turned-up edge of the abdomen is marked with dark-green spots, also, on
both sides. ‘The larva has nearly the same markings, and only differs from
the perfect insect by its want of wings. ‘The only way to destroy these
insects is to pick them off and kill them.

Plant Lice (Aphis).— These are especial enemies to various sorts of
culinary vegetables. They, indeed. spare no plant; but they prefer juicy
vegetables, — the different sorts of the cabbage tribe, peas, and beans. Ley
and vapor of tobacco are recommended as the best means of killing the
aphides, but these remedies cannot well be applied to culinary vegetables.

Large Cabbage White Butterfly.— The wings are white; upper wings
with broad black tips, and the female has two black spots on the middle.
The under side of the under wings is light-yellow. Appears from May to
October. he caterpillar is bluish-green, thinly-haired, sprinkled with
black dots, having a yellow stripe on the back, and some on the sides.
Found on al] sorts of cabbages, horse-radish, radishes, mustard, and similar
plants, as well as on water-cresses. The pupe are yellowish-green, with
black dots, with a point on the head, and five on the back. The best way
to destroy them is picking off and killing the caterpillars, as well as the
pupe, excepting those which have a brown appearance, as these are full of
the larve of ichneumons, and other allied parasites, which are the great
scourge of these caterpillars.

Small White Butterfly. —This resembles the former insect, but is smaller,
and the black tint at the points of the upper wings is fainter, and not visible
on the outer edge. ‘The caterpillar is of a dull green, with very fine hairs,
yellow stripe on the back, and yellow spots on the sides, on a pale ground.
In some years, it is very injurious to the cabbage and turnip plants. The
pupa is yellowish, or greenish-gray, with three yellow stripes. Destroyed
in the same manner as the foregoing insect.

Green-veined White Butterfly. —The wings are white, with the tips of
the upper ones black. ‘The male has one black spot, the female two or
three. The veins on the outer edge of the female’s under wings are black.
The under wings are yellow on the under side, with greenish-powdered
veins. It flies about in April and July, and is of the size of the preceding.
‘The caterpillar, which lives on the leaves of cabbages and turnips, is finely-
haired, of a faint or brownish green, lighter at the sides, with reddish-
yellow spiracles, small white warts, and black punctures. The pupa is
yellowish-green, with points on the head, and its back is rather lighter than
the foregoing species. Destroyed by the same means as the two preceding
species.

Gamma Moth.—The caterpillar of this moth is so plentiful in some

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 647

years that it does great damage to vegetables, peas, and various sorts of
fodder-herbage. The ground-color of this moth is light, and dark-gray,
mixed with rust-color. ‘The head and collar are of brownish-gray, edged
with light-gray lines, as well as the crested back and shoulders. The
abdomen is yellowish-gray, with elevated brown tufts of hair. The upper
wings are marbled, and have a metallic lustre ; the inner edge is wavy, and
toothed near the fringes. ‘The notched cross-lines are silvery ; towards the
inner border is a shining mark, resembling the Greek letter gamma; the
under wings are yellowish-brown at the base above the fringes, with black
bands. The blackish-hrown pupa is inclosed in a white cocoon. The cater-
pillar is green, beset with single hairs, has twelve feet, and a_brownish-
green head. On the back are four very small yellowish or whitish lines;
the feet have a yellow stripe. The spiracles are blackish-green. These
caterpillars are found from spring to autumn, in a variety of generations.
The only possible means of destroying them is by shaking them off and
hand-picking.

Cabbage Moth. — The caterpillar of the cabbage moth isa great enemy
to different sorts of culinary vegetables. The moth is of middling size, one
inch and a half broad, when the wings are extended; its head, collar, and

Fig. 355.

back, are blackish-gray, intermixed with whitish and yellowish hairs. The
back has a thick double crest; the abdomen is dark ash-gray, the upper
half beset with black tufts in the middle. The upper wings are gray, with
a mixture of yellow and white ; the under wings are light gray, with dark
veins, and central spots, —blackish towards the outer edge. The moth
appears in May and June, sits in the day-time, and flies only at night. The

648 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

eaterpillar is green, more or less covered with gray or black; it has a dark
stripe on the back, on which there is a pale, indistinct line. Above, it is
sometimes furnished with dark or pale spots, placed lengthwise. At the
sides is a dirty-yellow stripe, which becomes reddish above ; close above
this spot are two white spiracles, surrounded with black, each in a small
black spot. When this caterpillar is numerous, it does considerable damage
to cabbages, lettuces, &c., by eating out the heart. It appears in July,
August and September. To look for them and kill them is a troublesome,
but the only sure way of getting rid of them.

White Line Brown-eyed Moth.— The caterpillar of this moth sometimes
does a great deal of damage to different sorts of culinary plants, in th®same
manner as the moth last described. ‘The moth is dark rusty brown; the
feelers have white scales ; abdomen ash-gray, with brown tufts; feet gray-
ish-brown, yellow-ringed below; the fore wings have no connected cross-
lines; the round middle spot is surrounded with white; the under wings
are ochre-yellow, or dirty-white, with darker shades towards the whitish
fringes. The reddish or yellowish brown caterpillar has on the back, and
on each side, a dark stripe, and a whitish one nearly over the feet; the
under side and feet are light-brown ; it is dotted with black between the
dark stripes. ‘The pupa is shining reddish-brown, and remains in the earth
during winter. Destroyed only by hand-picking.

Cabbage-garden Pebble Moth. —Of the family Pyralide, a small group of
moths, this species only deserves to be mentioned, as its caterpillar some-
times greatly injures several sorts of vegetables. The head, back, and upper
wings of the moth, are hazel-brown, and brownish-gold ; the feelers light-
brown; the abdomen and under wings whitish. The first brood flies in
May, and the second in August. The caterpillar is found in May and June,
and the second generation in the fall. It has a light-brown head, and a
yellowish-green body, with blackish stripes running lengthwise, and black-
ish dots, having fine white lines between. Its length is about two thirds of
an inch. Destroy by shaking them off and burying immediately, or killing.

Carrot Moth.— The caterpillar of this small moth is a great enemy of
carrots. The moth has a head and back reddish-brown, with single black
atoms ; abdomen and feet ash-gray, the former with white incisions ; the
upper wings are of a reddish-brown color; there are also black streaks and
white atoms, and fringes which surround an indistinct row of dots; the
under wings are of ash-gray, lightest nearer the base, with yellowish
fringes ; on the under side, the upper wings are dark, the under wings light-
gray.. The caterpillar lives on carrots, and eats the flower and seeds. It
is greenish-gray, inclining to yellow, strewed with black tubercles, emitting
hairs ; the head and upper side of the thorax are browr. It attains the

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 649

length of half an inch. The means of its destruction are simply hand-pick-
ing.

Roesel’s Tinea. — The little caterpillars of this moth sometimes do sensi-
ble injury to the choicest vegetables. The caterpillars are yellowish-green ;
head shining blackish-brown. Look for them, and kill them.

Onion Fly.— The larva or maggot of a small fly, damaging the various
sorts of onions. ‘he perfect insect or fly is entirely of an ash-gray color in
the female, or with black stripes on tlie back of the male, the wings clear
like glass, with yellowish-brown veins. In the figure, a is the grub or
larva; 6, magnified; c, pauparium, within which is the real pupa; d,

Fig. 356.

magnified ; e, perfect insect magnified ; the cross-lines showing the natural
size. The fly lays her eggs on the leaves of the onion, close to the earth;
the newly-hatched maggot bores through the first leaf, and then descends
between the leaves into the onion to its base, when it entirely destroys the
bulb, which soon becomes rotten. ‘To destroy them, strew ashes and
pounded charcoal ; also remove all the infested onions early out of the beds,
before the flies are developed; and these onions are easily known by their
outward leaves turning yellow.

Cabbage Fly. — This is another small fly, which attacks the cabbage. The
perfect insect is ash-gray; the thorax has three indistinct black streaks on
the back ; the wings are clear, like glass ; the abdomen is linear, with black
stripes on the back of the male, or entirely ash-gray on the female; the
length is three lines. ‘The larva much resembles that of the onion fly, but
is thicker. ‘The only way of diminishing this destructive fly is to pull up,
and carry away betimes, the plants attacked by the larve, which nay be
known by their dull lead-color, and the withering of their leaves in the sun-
shine. ,

Lettuce Fly. —This fly is rather smaller than the former ; it is blackish

650 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

brown ; the under part and sides of the segments of the abdomen varying
gray ; length nearly one fourth of an inch. It flies in July. The larva
resembles the former, but is smaller and smoother, and its color varies more
into yellow. It destroys lettuce-seeds, and other salad plants. It is almost
impossible to get rid of these insects.

Negro Fly. — This insect, in its perfect state, is slightly haired, shining
black, rather of a metallic-green ; head reddish-yellow ; legs light-yellow ;
balancers white ; wings clear, like glass; one sixth of an inch long. The
Jarva lives in the carrot, particularly near the extremity of the main root.
The carrots die off by degrees, or at least lose their sweet taste, and become
rusty, by the passages of the maggots. ‘The larva of the carrot fly is cylin-
drical, pointed anteriorly, like parchment, shining, smooth, bare, pale-yel-
low. The only way to diminish their number is to pull up the sickly
infested carrots, known by their yellow outer leaves and early withering,
and to destroy the insects contained in them, before they change into pup.

IV. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND
VINES.

Black-veined White Butterfly, or Hawthorn Pontia. — This is a four-winged

insect, which only flies by day, seeks its necessary food, and fulfils the work

of propagation. It is large, wholly white, excepting that the ribs or veins

Fig. 357.

of the wings, and a short oblique stripe from the second to the third vein of
the upper wings, are black, which distinguishes it from the cabbage butter-
fly. Eggs shining, yellow, cylindrical ; the newly-hatched caterpillars are
dirty-yellow, and covered with hair; the head is black, and there is a black
ting round the neck, and a brownish stripe on both sides. ‘The first warm

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 651

unshine in spring, which causes the sap to flow, entices the caterpillars to
leave their nest ; and as the blossom-buds begin to shoot, they are attacked
and consumed, as are also the leaf-buds. At the second change of their
skin, the caterpillars acquire two rows of yellow spots down the back, close
to and between which extends a black line ; the back is covered with yel-
low and white hairs, and from the black stripes on the sides extend oblique
ash-gray stripes, parallel to each other, to the upper side of the body. There
is also a third change, when the caterpillars have a black stripe in the mid-
dle of the back, which extends to the posterior part of the body ; the yellow
dots, to which the yellow hairs were attached, are not so perceptible, and
the white hairs become more thinly scattered. The pupa is whitish-
yellow, beset with black dots and stripes. At the beginning of June, the
butterfly appears and propagates its species. ‘The best way of destroying
these caterpillars on low fruit-trees is by seeking out the eggs or young
eaterpillars, on the branches, and killing them. ‘The hawthorn butterfly
prefers the lower apple-tree, to lay her eggs on ; and they may be seen on
the leaf, conspicuous from their shining yellow color, while the caterpillars
are betrayed by their web, and the adjacent gnawed leaves. When there
are no low trees, the high ones will be infested ; and in this case, the mode
of destruction must be delayed till the leaves have fallen off, when the nests
of the caterpillars will become visible. Lastly, a person provided with a
butterfly-net can take the insect on the blossoms of plants and shrubs, on
which it delights to sit in June, and suck the honey.

Yellow-tailed Moth. — This is a destructive insect in the orchard, the larve
of the moth often infesting fruit-trees to such a degree that not a leaf or fruit
remains uninjured. It flies about at night, and in the day-time sits quietly
on a leaf, or on a wall, and suffers itself to be caught in the hand. The
posterior part of the body is covered with a round mass of golden yellow
hair ; its fore wings are dazzling white, as is also the greater part of its
body, only the principal vein of the fore wing of the male is brown on its
under side, and sometimes has a few black dots on its wings. The male
has a smaller abdomen, a smaller tuft of hair on the tail, and strongly-
teethed feelers or horns. The moth appears in June, and propagates, the
eggs being lain on the under side of the leaf, covered with hair. The cater-
pillars are usually hatched in July; they are dirty-yellow, black-headed,
with a black ring round the neck, thickly-haired, and four rows of blackish
dots on the back. They feed on the membrane of the leaf. They change
their skins in August ; cease feeding in September, and become benumbed
in November, passing the winter in their nest. Before the buds on the trees
have begun to burst in spring, some of the caterpillars come out of their
nests, and eat the unfolded leaves; at the end of April, they change their

652 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

skins for the second time, and again in May, when they become reddish-
brown, marked on both sides with white spots, as far as the extremity of the
body, which is thickly set with hair along the back ; they now disperse over
the different fruit-trees in the garden. ‘To destroy them, the means are —-
the destruction of the eggs, killing the caterpillars soon after their birth ;
collect the pupe at a later period, pursue the moth in July and August, take
their nests from the trees in autumn and spring, and seek out and destroy the
half-grown caterpillars in their new webs in May.

Lackey, or Barred Tree Lackey Moth.—'The caterpillar of this moth
attacks all kinds of trees. 'The perfect insect is rarely seen, as it only flies
at night, and conceals itself during the day. This moth is of the middle size ;
the male, which is usually smaller than the female, measures, with spread
wings, from tip to tip, from one to one and a fourth inches. The ground-
color of the whole insect is either light-yellow, or reddish-yellow ochre ; the
upper wings have always a darker band in the middle, which is bordered by
two lighter cross-lines ; the fringes are whitish, and brown-spotted ; the
under wings are always of a uniform color, light-yellow or brownish ; the
horns are strongly teethed in the male, which has also a thinner abdomen.
This moth usually appears in July. In spring, the caterpillars are devel-
oped about the first of May, and they live in society till the third molting
They are usually met with early in the morning, or on rainy days, at the
forks of the twigs in a large nest, closely spun over with a silky substance
and, when disturbed, they let themselves down by threads to the ground, and
disperse. In the month of June, the caterpillar is fully grown ; it is often
an inch in length, soft, thinly-haired, striped with blue, red, and yellow, —
hence its fanciful name,— with a white line down the back; the head is
bluish-gray, marked with two black spots. To get rid of this insect, crush
the whole colony, in May, with a stick, or sweep them down into a pot and
destroy them. From the middle of June, and during July, search should be
made for their cocoons, which will be found either fastened between two
leaves, on trees or shrubs, or lying in the roofs of houses, on the tops of
walls, or in hedges ; — tread on these cocoons. On low fruit-trees, the rings
of eggs may be discovered, after some practice, when the leaves have fallen
off; and, when found, they must be removed from the tree and burnt.

Gypsy Moth. — Early in spring, before the leaves of the fruit-trees are
fully out, the little caterpillars are hatched, and spread over the bursting
buds ; the head is large yellow spotted ; six pair of red dots on the hinder
part of the back ; tufts of hair on each side of the body, and single hairs on
the back. After changing their skin, a pair of blue tubercles appear on the
fore part of the back, —that is, on each of the first four figments of the body,
by which they may be identified at once. ‘Towards the end of June, the

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 653

caterpillars form their cocoons on the fruit-trees; the moth appears in
August ; the males are dark-brown, and their fore wings have three or four
undulating blackish stripes ; the females are whitish-gray, their fore wings
traversed by brownish stripes. The moth lays her eggs in various places in
the fall. To get rid of these insects, first find out the egg masses, and crush
them. As they are large, and usually in open places, we cannot avoid see-
ing them, if we look carefully, which should be done in autumn, or early in
spring, before the caterpillars are hatched.

Goat Moth. — The caterpillar of this moth lives on the wood, instead of
the foliage of the trees, thus materially injuring it. It is very large, smooth
and shining, with here and there single hairs. It is dark-red on the back,
also on the spiracles situated at both sides ; the sides and lower part of the
body are flesh-colored ; the head is black, the first segment also marked
with black above. It discharges a corrosive fluid at its persecutors, and
also diffuses an extremely offensive smell. After remaining more than two
years in the larva state, and casting its skin eight times, the caterpillar
becomes of a light ochre-yellow hue shortly before pupation, which usually
takes place in spring. The abdomen of the pupa is yellow, and the seg-
ments are deeply indented, and capable of much extension. The cocoon is
situated immediately within the opening of the tree, so that the pupa, when
matured, can press itself half out of the hole, when the shell bursts, and the
moth comes forth usually in June or July. It is difficult to apply any rem-
edies. When the existence of one of these creatures in a trunk is ascer-
tained, by the extruded excrement, relief comes too late for the tree, even
if the caterpillar may be killed ; still, the caterpillar should be reached, if
possible, by enlarging the opening with a garden-knife, or endeavor to kill
it by thrusting a piece of pointed wire up the hole of the tree.

Wood Leopard Moth. — This insect injures the trunks of trees in the
same manner as the foregoing, to which it perfectly assimilates in its habits,
and is destroyed by the same means. It is smaller, however; is hatched in
August, molts in September, and is full-grown the next June. From its
first existence till its transformation, it is yellow, with raised, shiny black
dots, on each of which there is a fine short hair ; there are two black spots
on the head. The moth appears in August; its ground-color is white, with
scattered steel-blue dots ; it measures, with spread wings, two inches and
a half.

Figure-of-8 Moth. — This insect feeds on the foliage of fruit-trees. In
June, when almost full-grown, this caterpillar measures nearly two inches ;
it is very juicy, of a yellowish-green color, with black tubercles; it has a
very small bluish head, with two black round spots on it. When young, it
is lighter, and is often nearly white on the back ; but when old, becomes of

55 *

654 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

a bluish color. The pupa is small, cylindrical, reddish-brown, dull, in
some degree powdered with blue; the moth appears in October, or in the
following spring. ‘The perfect insect or moth measures, with spread
wings, from tip to tip, about one and three fourths inches. ‘The whitish-
yellow spot in the middle of the fore wings, which is divided by three
incisions at the sides, and is situated between two blackish, undulated cross-
lines, has been sometimes compared to the figure 8. A white wavy line
forms a small white spot behind the second stripe at the anal angle; the
toothed external edge has ash-gray, shining fringes, bounded with a line;
the under wings, which are ash-gray, have a dull middle spot, and an indis-
tinct band, with a small, black, streaky spot at the anal angle ; the color of
the feelers, which are toothed in the male, and filiform in the female, is
rusty-brown ; the thorax above is the same color as the fore wings, and the
abdomen, with the extremity of the body, — which in the male has a tuft of
hair, and in the female is cylindrical and downy, — is of the same color as
the hinder wings. ‘To destroy or diminish these insects, hand-pick them
as soon as they appear. ‘This is best done in rainy weather, when they take
refuge under the branches and on dry places of the stem. Their presence
can be detected by their rather elevated oval form, and they may be
destroyed by the garden-knife, or a piece of wood.

Lunar Spotted Pinion Moth. — The caterpillars of this moth are rather
thick and fleshy, light-green, with a whitish stripe along the back, and two
darker lines along the sides; on the segments are whitish-yellow warts,
furnished with fine, small hairs; over the feet and along the first three
segments runs a yellow stripe, bordered with black. As soon as the fruit-
trees are in leaf, this insect is on hand. ‘They are fully grown about the
first of June, and become pupe of a blue, frosted appearance, on the trees
themselves. In a few weeks the moth comes out; the fore-wings are
brownish-red, with several undulating dark-brown transverse lines, and also
have a whitish semi-circular spot, nearly at the tip; near to this, almost at
the outer edge, is a rather large black spot ; the under wings are light-gray,
rather darker towards the fringes, which are yellow. ‘To get rid of the
insect, throw them down, by shaking the branches. ‘The moths also usually
fall from the tree, if the branches are struck in June and July.

Winter Moth. — The green-looped caterpillar produced by this moth is
a ruinous insect to fruit-trees. It appears late in the autumn, and proceeds
from a light-brown pupa, which lies from June to the end of October, either
a few inches under the earth, or under stones and clods. The male is
winged, — the female is almost wingless; the male is of a yellowish-gray,
with pale-gray wings, traversed with delicate, darkish cross-lines ; the
female has a much thicker body, of an ash-gray color. It is a nocturnal

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 655

insect ; the eggs are laid singly, at the top of the tree, and are small and
greenish. ‘The caterpillars are hatched in spring, are at first gray, and

then light-green ; black head, without ventral feet. They devour the Jeaves,
buds, and fruit, and occasionally the trees do not recover for some time.
The winter moths do not all appear in autumn, but many of them lay their
eggs on the trees in the following spring. ‘To prevent their attacks, it is
recommended to surround the base of the stem with a wooden frame, or box,
and daub it on the outside with tar; others recommend the placing of a
layer of bird-lime around the trunk of the tree, which is said to have equal
effect, and does not require daily renewing.

Pale Brindled Beauty Moth. — It appears very early on the fruit-trees, —
generally on the pear. The male is rather large; the fore-wings are
greenish-gray, covered with fine brownish dots, and traversed by interrupted
gray cross-stripes, interspersed with whitish spots between; the hind-
wings are more or less white, and through the middle of them runs a
brownish wavy cross-stripe ; before the fringes is another gray, dark stripe ;
the body of the male is also grayish-green, with long hairs; the female is
without wings, small, coffee-brown, with angular tufts of fine hair, and
long feet, annulated with white and brown. In March, the female deposits
her eggs on a small side-twig, in rows downwards, covering them with
long gray hairs. As soon as the leaves begin to unfold on the twigs, the
young caterpillars are hatched.

656 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

Lime Looper, or Mottled Umbre Moth. — Takes its name from the lime
tree, on which it likes to feed, as also on fruit-trees. This caterpillar,
when full-grown, is of a reddish color, and has a yellow stripe on each
side. It goes into the earth in May or June, and is transformed into a
brownish-red pupa. ‘The moth comes out of the earth in the beginning of
November, and lays her eggs on a fruit-tree. The male is as large again
as that or the winter moth; its broad fore wings are of a reddish-yellow,
covered with blackish dots; the under wings are dirty-white, dotted with
brown, and in the middle of the wings is a black dot. ‘The female has no
wings, is much larger than that of the winter moth; the head and body are
whitish, covered with black streaks and dots, and the feet annulated with
yellow and black. ‘To guard against its ravages, the same contrivance as
for the winter moth is to be resorted to, or strike the branches of the tree
with a long pole in May, to throw down the caterpillars.

Small Ermine Moth. — This is a small, nocturnal, four-winged insect ;
the feet, feelers, abdomen, and fore wings, are white, — the latter covered
with about twenty black dots ; the under wings are blackish. The female
lays her eggs, at the end of June or first of July, near a blossom-bud, or a
leaf-bud. ‘The caterpillars are hatched the same autumn, and as soon the
next spring as the leaves of the apple-trees begin to be formed, these cater-
pillars take possession of them. ‘The caterpillars mature about the middle
of June, when they are dirty-yellow, or lead-color, with a black head; and
on the side of each abdominal segment is a longish black spot, and near it
small dots, each furnished with a hair. In June the moths are found on
the fruit-trees. They may be taken from the tree by the hand, and
destroyed.

Codling Moth. — A small, reddish-white grub, met with in early apples
or pears. ‘The fore wings have a light-gray ground, on which are scattered
many delicate streaks of a dark hue, intermixed with others that are broad
and cup-shaped. On the posterior border of the fore wings is a large red-
dish-brown spot, surrounded by a golden mark in the form of a horse-shoe.
The hind wings are of a sparkling brownish-red, inclining to yellow, and
are surrounded on the outer border by a broad, light fringe. The thorax
and abdomen are of yellow and brownish-gray. This moth is to be seen in
the evening, in May, on the apple and pear trees, busily depositing its eggs,
either on the calyx, or in the hollow part of the fruit at the stalk end. In
favorable weather, the little grubs are hatched in a few days, so that in
May apples and pears are infested by them. At first the grub is white,
with a black head and collar, and biack, slanting double dots, which run in
four rows from the head to the abdomen; it afterwards becomes more of a
flesh-color, the head and collar turning brown, the dots gray and indistinct.

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 657

The little grub immediately becomes a pupa in the web, and in a few days
the moth comes out, which shortly pairs, and deposits eggs on the fruit.
To diminish this insect in some degree, collect the fallen apples every day,
and take them out of the garden; also remove all fruit from the tree which
has grubs in it, and clear the trees of all loose bark, before the middle of
April.

Red Grub of the Plum. —Injurious to the early plums. It produces a
moth ; its fore wings are black, changing to a metallic hue in the sun; on
the outer edge of the fore wings, and reaching up, there is the appearance
of very fine silver dust; the black spot on the extreme point of the fore
wings is surrounded with a white border, and has the appearance of an eye.
This moth appears in June; the eggs are hatched when the weather
Lecomes warm; in July, the grub penetrates deeply into the plum, and the
outward wound, which it made in entering, soon heals up, and the plum
becomes filled with the excrement of the caterpillar. There are few
means in our power to destroy this insect. ‘The tree must be shaken, and
every plum which falls must be removed. Also remove the loose or split
bark.

Red Bud Caterpillar. — The moth which proceeds from this is somewhat
larger than the one above described, has a white, broad, transverse band,
studded with gray spots, extending through the middle of the fore wings
from one edge to the other, and occupies more than a third part of their
whole surface ; the other parts of the fore legs are gray. -It is found on the
fruit-trees in May; lays its eggs in June, which hatch the next spring, and
attack the buds. A honey-drop is not unfrequently seen on the bud, which,
issuing from the wound made by the insect, is evidence that it will expand
no more; should no sap, however, issue from the wound, the bud will con-
tinue to grow, with the little caterpillar im it. The caterpillar attains its
full size in four or five weeks; it then spins itself a white cocoon, in which
it changes to a light-brown pupa, and appears again in Mayasa moth. To
diminish the number of this insect, we must search for the caterpillar on
the fresh flower-buds, taking it out with a penknife ; if we search for all
the closely-adhering leaf and flower buds on the dwarf trees, during the
blossoming season, and separate them, no bud-eating caterpillars will escape
us

Plum-tree Tortrix.— This larva, when fully grown, is about one fourth
of an inch long, of a dirty-green color, with a red head, and is the cater-
pillar of a very small moth. It has three pairs of feet, and five pairs of
fleshy prolegs. The body is sprinkled with a few small hairs. The larva
lurks, during nearly the whole year, under the bark of the trees; the per-
fect insect appears first in June, and again in harvest. The female lays her

658 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

eggs on the outer bark, from which the young caterpillars, by degrees, pen-
etrate to the inner bark. To prevent the moth from laying her eggs on the
tree, or to prevent the caterpillars from entering the inner bark, wash the
stem of the tree with a solution of lime, in June and September ; also brush
the tree, and when there is seen the smallest heap of red dust, introduce a
needle, wire, or knife, into the opening, and destroy the larva. The moth,
which, on account of its size and color, is difficult to be caught, is about
half an inch long; fore wings dark-brown and yellow; silvery lines and
yellow spots on the front edge ; a dark-brown stain on the upper part of the
wings, softened off at the edges, and surrounded by three red lines; the
under hind wings are brown. The pupa is brown, and lies under the
bark.

Copper-colored Weevil. — Among those insects which feed on fruits is the
copper-colored weevil, Curculio, or Rhynchites cupreus. It is somewhat
larger than the apple weevil, and its horny wing-cases are furrowed and
metallic copper-colored. Its body and feet are of a somewhat deeper shade,
and its proboscis and feelers are black. It appears in spring, on different
fruit-trees; also called the plum-borer. When the plum is nearly the
size of a large almond, the female weevil selects one in which to lay her
eggs; and as soon as this is done, she cuts through the stalk with her pro-
boscis, and by various cunning means causes the plum to drop off. The
egg does not remain long dormant in the plum or the ground, for, if the
weather is favorable, the larva is hatched in a few days, and it then pro-
ceeds to eat the pulp of the plum, which it does in about six weeks ; and,
being now fully grown, it buries itself in the earth, and awaits its transform-
ation in the next spring, when it appears as a beetle, and again begins the
work of regeneration. It is very difficult to catch these beetles on the trees,
but much easier to destroy their young. Pick up the fallen plums, and
frequently shake the trees, from June to July. However strong the wind
may be, it seldom throws down healthy, half-grown plums.

Bacchus, or Purple Apple Weevil.— This beetle is of a purple and gold
color, with dark blue proboscis, feelers, and tarsi. Its size is various. It
is found early in spring on the apple-tree ; begins the work of regeneration
in midsummer, by boring a hole in the apple, laying an egg at the entrance,
and pushing it inside with its proboscis, covering the hole in an ingenious
manner ; it proceeds in this way, depositing three or four eggs in different
parts of one apple, and then leaves for another. The grub, which is whit-
ish, with a black head, is hatched in a few days, and at once begins to eat
the apple, and makes a passage to the surface, to throw cut its excrement
or admit more air. The larva is full-grown in three or four weeks, and,
uke the larva of all weevils, has no feet. It leaves the apple when ready.

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 659

for transformation, conceals itself in the earth, and reappears the next
spring as the weevil. ‘To lessen their number, pick up and remove the
injured pierced apples; also shake the trees well in June and July, to throw
down the beetles and kill them.

Stem-boring Weevil. — This is a small beetle, entirely of a blue-steel, or
a steel-green, shining, metallic color. As soon as the blossom and leaf
buds begin to unfold, the beetle appears on the trees. The female selects
a suitable part of the shoot, and bores to its middle; she then places herself
over the entrance, lays an egg, pushes it into the proper place, and then,
by piercing and cutting the shoot, causes it to fall; after this is done, she
rests and feeds, and then bores another hole, if there be room, near the first,
and Jays another egg, and this operation is busily continued for some weeks.
The egg in the shoot is hatched in about eight days, and a white grub, with
a black head, then appears, feediny on the pith of the shoot ; it is full-grown
in a month, and then buries itself in the earth till spring, when it again
appears as a steel-blue colored weevil; and when the tree begins to sprout,

_it gets upon it, and propagates its species. To diminish the number of
these insects, look out for the full-grown insect, which is easily taken at
the time of pairing, and is clearly seen by the splendid steel-blue color.
Dexterity is necessary in capturing them. As we cannot, however, remove
all of them, the shoots that lie on the ground, or which still hang on the
tree, which have been attacked, must be collected and destroyed. Many of
these kinds of beetles, about half the size of the one mentioned, lay their
eggs in the pith of the petiole instead of the shoot; the female puncturing it
to the right and left of the part where the egg is deposited, causing the leaf
to wither and fall off; the grub then taking up its abode in the earth, and
changing to a beetle. These leaves, which may be known by their rum-
pling up and becoming withered, ought to be taken off and destroyed as soon
as possible.

Apple Weevil.— A small beetle; wing-cases dark-brown, with whitish-
gray stripes; its rostrum, eyes, and under part of abdomen, black. It
appears as soon as the sap is in motion in the trees in spring; and when the
blossom-buds are pretty full of sap, the eggs are deposited, and the grubs
are hatched, early or late in April, according to the weather. It bores a
hole with its proboscis into the best blossom-buds; the female then fixes
herself at the entrance, lays an egg, and pushes it into the hole; this oper-
ation is afterwards repeated on the same or on fresh buds; the grub or larva
often comes out on the fifth or sixth day, and commences to devour the
innermost parts of the blossom ; but the blossom-bud continues to swell, and
the petals to open, till it is almost expanded; but all at once its growth
ceases, because not merely the blossom, — that is, the stamens and pistils of

660 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the flower, — but the receptacle itself on which they stand, is devoured.
The petals, therefore, which remain partially closed, forming a kind of cap,

wither by degrees, and at last appear scorched. ‘To lessen the number of
the apple weevils, remove all loose stones, and the leaves which fall in
autumn ; clear away the loose or broken bark ; and on dwarf trees, take the
pierced blossoms from the trees when the ey begins to be formed,
and before it appears burnt.

Pear Weevil. — While the apple weevil contents itself with only single
blossoms of the apple-trees, this one attacks biossoms, blossom-buds, and

Fig. 360.

leaf-buds, together. If a pear-tree is examined at the time of blossoming,
many buds will be seen to be brown at the points, and on nearer inspection,
there will be found a dirty-white rugose maggot, with a dark-brown head,
which in time is changed to a small weevil. Early in spring the female
lays her eggs in the buds, causing them to become brown, and then to fall
off when the insect is perfect. ‘Should their attacks become too numerous,
take off the pierced buds and burn them; also shake the trees early in
spring, spreading a white cloth under the trees, so that the fallen insects
may be seen; also bind strips of paper covered with tar around the stems,
to prevent the beetles ascending.

Oblong Weevil.— This is one of a class of small, destructive beetles.
It has a short rostrum; its head, thorax, and body, are black; its feelers
and feet reddish, and its elytra furrowed, and reddish-brown or blackish.
It appears early in spring, and selects the best leaves of fruit-trees. They
pair in spring; in June, the female lays her eggs in the earth, and the grub,

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 661

that is produced feeds on the roots of plants, passes the winter in the earth,
and, in the spring, appears transformed into a beetle. They shouid be
watched in the spring, and, with caution, may then be caught by the hand.

Red-footed Beetle. — Another small insect, feeding on the leaves of fruit-
trees. It is shining black throughout, except its red feet; the tips of the
feelers are black, and the basal part reddish. It appears generally in May,
and continues a long while. It may be caught by the hand.

Garden Beetle. —The Melolontha (or Anisoplia) horticola is another
leaf-eating beetle. It is larger than the oblong weevil; its wing-cases are
red-brown, but somewhat shining, and not reaching to the extreme point of
the body. Its body, thorax, and head, are dark-green; its feelers reddish,
with a dark-green, strongly-cleft terminal club. They appear somewhat
later than the one just mentioned. The female lays her eggs in the earth,
and the larve, when hatched, feed on the roots of plants, are transformed to
beetles, and appear again as such in the spring. It feeds on the leaves of
fruit-trees, and is particularly injurious to the apples, because it feeds on
them when they are very small. When numerous, they often gnaw all the
leaves till they resemble a sieve, thus checking the growth of the tree, and
causing the fruit to fall. As these insects are tolerably large, they are
easily seen, and can be removed with comparatively little difficulty.

Apple-bark Beetle. — So called because it prefers the apple-tree in which
to deposit its eggs. It is small; head and thorax black; the extremity of
the palpi and feelers reddish ; the longish wing-cases blackish, and some-
what hairy; the feet dilated, and of a reddish-yellow ; the thighs black.
When the female finds a suitable place, she bores a completely round hole
in the tree, penetrating to the centre, the minute particles of wood thrown
out serving as a sign of the insect’s presence. At the end of the entrance,
snow-white, longish eggs are laid, which are also the characteristics of the
larve that are hatched in May. ‘The larve grow very rapidly. This vari-
ety of insect belongs to a tribe of beetles whose economy is well known,
and in which the larve of all the species whose habits have hitherto been
noticed burrow beneath the bark, devour the soft inner bark, or wood
beneath the bark, and form distinct channels, diverging from the place where
the eggs were deposited. The only way to destroy them is to cut off the
branches infested with their eggs; and should the trunk be also attacked,
the whole tree had better be cut down and conveyed away.

Small-bark Beetle. —'This beetle is the Scolytus hemorrhous. It is
black, the ends of the wing-cases generaliy reddish; the feet brownish-red,
and the wing-cases furrowed lengthwise, and distinctly spotted. They
make small holes in the stem, penetrating deep into the bark. It is evideut,
that when any tree is attacked by this insect in great numbers, it must

662 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

perish, because no tree can continue to grow with an injured bark and
pierced sapwood. The insects cannut easily be eradicated, or, at least,
diminished in numbers, but by removing the trees aitacked by them.

Common Elm-destroying Scolytus— An insect allied to the apple-tree
scolytus, committing ravages on fruit and other trees. ‘The perfect insect
or beetle is small, cylindrically formed, and tolerably firm to the touch. The
head and thorax form the principal part of its body. They are black and
shining, finely and thickly dotted, the former covered with short yellowish-
gray hairs; the feelers are light pitch-brown, ending in a knob; the wing-
cases are, as it were, obliquely cut off behind, and at the base near the
thorax somewhat hollowed, — are marked in lines which are dotted, as are also
the spaces between them, — their color is pitch-brown ; the abdomen, from the
base to the apex, is as if slantingly lopped off, and, like the thorax, of a dark
pitch-brown, thickly dotted; the legs are reddish-brown, with the second
joint tolerably broad. The larva is yellowish-white, with a large shining
head, a brown mouth, and a whitish-transparent swelling between the head
and the first ring on the throat. They confine themselves to the inner bark,
destroying*that part by degrees, and causing the tree, or some of its branches,
to perish. The only remedy is to fell and carry off the trees attacked, and
burn them, in the autumn, in winter, or in early spring, at the time when
the insect is still in the larva state.

Plum Sauw-fly.—The green gage and round plums are sometimes
attacked, when hardly the size of a pea, causing them to fall off, by a saw-
fly, which makes use of the pulp as food for her offspring. It resembles the
house-fly, but has four wings; the head and body are black, and the feet
reddish-yellow. As soon as the blossom-buds begin to expand, the insect
appears, pairs, and then begins to lay its eggs, — selecting the largest kinds
of plums, — in the upper part of the green envelope of the blossom, cutting in
and piercing it through, and immediately introduces the egg into the deep-
est part. The egg is small, and is hatched in a few days, appearing a
delicate whitish larva, with a dark-brown head, six pairs of middle feet,
three pairs of fore feet, and one pair of anal feet. It fixes itself in the centre
of the plum-stone, which it eats; in six weeks it is fully grown, and the
plum then drops to the ground, the insect buries itself in the earth till the
next spring, when it appears again as a perfect saw-fly, ascends the plum-
tree, and continues its species. To diminish the number of this insect, take
the plums infested by the larva from the tree, and destroy them ; — these are
known by a small black opening in the plum;—also pick up and convey
away all the plums that fall.

Pear Saw-fly.— This insect attacks the pear-tree to lodge her young
there It measures, from the front of the head to the extreme point of the

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 663

body, } of an inch and one sixth in breadth. Its long feelers consist of
humerous joints, the basal part of which is very thick and long, the second
much thinner and shorter, and the third the longest. The head is black,
with a yellow triangular spot between the feelers; the breast and the upper
side of the thorax are quite black; the first abdominal segment likewise
black, but surrounded with yellow; the other segments are orange-yellow
from the plates to the two edges, by which the upper part of the abdomen is
united to the belly ; these plates are of a light-yellow color; the wings look
glossy, with a dark-brown mark round the edge, and an obscure kind of
stripe, which extends across the whole breadth ; the three pairs of feet are
of an orange-color. li appears in May and June; the eggs are laid on the
under side of the leaf; and the caterpillar, which is hatched in a few days,
is first whitish-yellow, but becomes darker every day. It has a black head,
and just under the throat are two black dots; the other parts of the body are
ochre-colored, and transparent, without hairs. In five weeks they are full-
grown ; then leave the tree, bury themselves in the earth, and do not appear
again as saw-flies, till the next spring, to propagate their species. Their
webs must be removed from the trees.

Peach or Poplar Saw-fly.—'To those insects which only attack the
leaves of fruit-trees, and use them as food, belongs the peach saw-fly.
It is a little longer than the common house-fly, is black, and only on the
hinder part of the body, the back and the abdomen, are seen whitish square
incisions, extending on both sides towards the middle; the feelers are
simply jointed, the palpi and feet are yellow, the thighs black. They ap-
pear in April or May, laying their eggs firmly on a leaf, a white-greenish
grub being produced in a few days, which eats the leaves; they are full-
grown in five or six weeks, are about the size of the green lopper of the
winter moth, of a light-green color, with black heads, three pairs of fore and
one pair of hind feet; they now retire into the ground, remaining there till
spring, when they again appear as saw-flies to propagate their species.
The larve is very destructive, the trees looking as though covered with
spiders’ webs, instead of leaves. Examine the trees carefully when the
leaves are expanded, and the pale-yellow eggs, which usually lie together
on the point or edge of the leaf, are easily seen. If these are destroyed as
soon as they are laid, the leaves will not be consumed. ‘The green larva
cannot escape notice, as they are always surrounded with a web, and rolled
up in the leaves they have gnawed.

Pear Chermes.— These creatures beset the young shoots and bearing
wood of dwarf pear-trees. It is an insect nearly allied to the plant-lice
(aphides). It has wings, and is about the size of a large aphis. It has a
broad head, terminating in front in two cones; but there is no opening for

664 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

the mouth in the head, it being situated in the middle of the breast. The
rostrum stands out perpendicularly, and ends in a point, from the latier

Fig. 361.

issuing the very long delicate tongue with which it sucks its food. The
female is mostly crimson-colored ; the male in some parts more shaded with

black ; the wings of both are membranous and snow-white. As soon as the

buds appear, the winged chermes appears, and the eggs, which are longish
and yellow, are deposited on the young Jeaves and blossoms, or on the
newly-formed fruits and shoots. They are hatched in a few days, and
resemble the apterous plant-lice, have six feet, and are dark-yellow. After
a few days, they change their skins, and become darker ; and when they have
molted for the last time, and have attained full size, the body swells gradu-
ally and becomes cylindrical. ‘They then leave their associates, and, before
they lay aside their nymph-like covering, they fasten themselves firmly to
a leaf; after a few minutes the skin splits on the upper part of the covering,
and a winged insect proceeds from it, of a pleasant green color, red eyes,
and snow-white wings. After a few days, this chermes has assumed the
colors of the perfect insect ; the head, collar, and thorax, are of an orange-
color, and only the abdomen retains its green hue. Late in the autumn it
selects a place for protection from the cold, and in spring appears in its
crimson black-shaded clothing, to begin the work of regeneration. 'To clear
the trees from them, brush the young off with a stiff brush, and tread upon
them; or, search out and take away the winged chermes from the dwarf
pear-trees, as soon as the blossoms appear and the shoots begin to grow.
Their red color and long wings discover them, and as they are not shy, they
are easily caught by the hand.

Apple Chermes. —The eggs are laid in September, on different places of
the twigs of an apple-tree, usually, however, in the furrows of the knots.
In the formation of the body of the perfect insect, it exactly resembles the
pear chermes ; it is, however, different from that species in color, the eyes,
instead of being red, are of a snowy-white, with a black pupil; the back of

NOXIOUS INSECTS 665

the thorax is of alight-green, the abdomen is marked with yellow rings, and
the membranous wings with strongly-marked snow-white veins. The snout,
which contains the setiform tongue, is situated, like that of all the species
of chermes, in the middle of the breast. When very numerous, these in-
sects cause considerable destruction ; because, when all the single standing
vlussoms are completely covered with blisters, broken filaments, and small
hairs, as is usually the case, and the flower-buds have been weakened by
the previous sucking of these insects, no fruit can be produced. ‘To secure
the blossom and fruit of trees in pots, or dwarf trees, brush away the young
chermes with a fine brush, when they appear, or at latest when the first
changing of the skin takes place in April. It is also necessary to examine
the small apple-trees in spring, when the blossoms begin to appear, to
ascertain if any aphides are upon them, and if so, to destroy them.
Plant-louse, or Aphis. — There are particularly three species of aphides
which are very destructive to fruit-trees, namely, the apple, plum, and peach
-aphides, Aphis pyri mali, Aphis pruni, and Aphis persice. The appie aphis is
grass-green, the plum aphis light-green, and the peach aphis dark-green. The
old females are known by dark-brown spots on their bodies. They all

Fig. 362.

appear as soon as the fruit-trees leaf. The peach aphides appear the first.
and are seen upon the trees when the buds are very young; they proceed
from eggs which were laid on the shoots the previous autumn, and are only
females without wings. No sooner do they see the light than they disperse
over the leaves and shoots near them, and begin to suck out the sap. In
twelve days they are fully formed, and at once produce young. ‘The off-
spring of the second generation is, if the weather be warm, again ready to
bring forth in ten days, at the latest. It often happens that sixteen genera-
tions in all are produced,— some of the progeny having wings, and others
56 *

666 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

none ; the latter never leaving the tree unless driven by force, and the former
pairing and producing their young wherever it may suit them. In Sep-
tember, males and females are produced from the last generation ; the apple
aphis producing males which do not obtain wings, and the peach aphis
those that do. When these newly-born males and females are full-grown,
pairing takes place. The females then no longer produce living young
ones, but lay eggs, from which the mothers of the forthcoming generations
proceed. ‘They lay their eggs on the twig or shoot itself, and either all
around it, like the apple aphis, or on or near the buds, like the plum and
peach aphides ; the females, having thus provided for their future spring
progeny, die off in the autumn; the eggs survive the winter. With
regard to the apple aphis, there is no method more effective than destroying
the eggs soon after they are laid. ‘They may be seen late in the autumn,
or early in spring, on the dwarf apple and pear trees, especially the young
trees that have high stems, because the eggs lie exposed close together on
the shoots, like grains of gunpowder, and yield a green juice, if pressed.
We should not, however, press them, but the shoots should be washed over
with liquid loam, garden earth, or whitewash, which will kill the eggs.
With regard to the plum and peach aphides, we must wait till they are
hatched and sitting on the leaves or blossom-buds, when, being of a dark-
brown, they are easily seen. When the peach-trees begin to put out their
leaves, examine them thoroughly on account of the aphides, because, at a
later period, when they are numerous, the trees cannot easily be freed fron:
them. Prune off the shoots infested by the aphides, and brush the tree,
carefully examining every tree in June, July, and August, because the third
and following generations bring many into the world, that soon obtain wings
and disperse themselves.

Small and Large Pear Midges. — This species of midge is very small ; the
feelers are cylindrical, finely-haired, and composed of sixteen joints, with the
two basal-joints thicker than the others ; the abdomen is slender, seven-ringed,
and finely-haired ; there is a knobby two-jointed pair of forceps on the extreme
point of the body of the male, and the same part of the female is pointed ;
the wings lie in a parallel direction; the feet are long, thin, and finely-
haired. According to some, it is a species belonging to the genus Sciara;
others call it Molobrus. The small pear midge lays her eggs in the blossoms
when they are still-closed. The large pear midge, female, is little more than
one twelfth of an inch long, and half as thick ; the male is more slender, and
shorter. The feelers are blackish, and not so long as the body; the head is
black and shining, as is also the thorax ; the proboscis ash-gray ; the abdomen
of the male a deep black, —that of the female browner, with black rings ; and
the apal point is quite black ; the feet are ash-gray, the tarsi and wings black.

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 667

The pears infested by these insects will, on being opened, be found with the
core eaten out and empty, or half rotten, causing the fruit to fall to the
ground, while some will be found but little decayed, though containing
several yellowish larve, one twelfth of an inch long, and a third as thick, with
ten segments without feet ; and each having a pointed head, on which two
‘black spots stand close together.

Black Gail Midge. — There are a number of species of this insect. The
thorax is-black, varying to ash-gray backwards, with black lines on the back ;
the scutellum is grayish; the abdomen blackish, with yellow incisions; the
feet are of a pale-gray, and the feelers are blackish-brown. They are found
to lay their eggs in the blossom of the pear-tree, as soon as the buds are so
far developed that in the single blossoms a petal is seen between the seg-
ments of the calyx. It fixes itself almost perpendicularly in the middle of a
single blossom, and, piercing the petal through, the eggs are laid on the
anther of the still-closed blossom. The eggs are hatched in a few days, and
the small larve bore into the blossom, in or near the stem of the calyx.
When they have consumed the pulp of the small fruit, they are full-grown,
and then they leave the tree, to bury themselves in the ground, or else remain
in the core till the pear falls to the ground. They issue from the earth in
spring, to propagate their species.

Paradoxical Pear Platygaster.— This is a small insect, said to have the
male organs of generation on the under side of the thorax, and those of the
female at the extremity of the horn arising from the base of the abdomen,
and curved over the head. As it is generally thought to be simply parasiti-
eal upon other insects, we shall not describe it further.

Rhynchites (Curculio) Betulett. — Rhynchites Bacchus, Sch., has hitherto
been considered as the peculiar enemy of the vine; it is, however, never
found on vines, but only on other kinds of fruit-trees, and is essentially dis-
tinguished from the Rh. Betuleti by its shining copper-color. The latter
insect is a small weevil, of a metallic-green or steel-blue color. It is one
third of an inch long, including the rostrum, — the latter being nearly a third of
the whole length; itis tolerably broad, and turned downwards. On the thorax
of the male, towards the front on both sides, are observed short spines; the
abdomen is almost quadrangular. ‘The spines are wanting on the thorax of
the female, and her rostrum isshorter. ‘The beetle appears in spring, as soon
as the trees are in full foliage, and begins its work of destruction in May. It
makes use of the leaf of the vine partly for a dwelling, and partly for the food
of its young. When the female has selected a suitable leaf, she cuts the
petiole with her rostrum almost half through, so that it hangs down. She
then begins to roll the leaf together, generally alone, but sometimes assisted
bythe male. While this operation is going forward, she also lays her eggs;

668 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

that is, she pierces the roll, jays an egg in the opening, and pushes it in with
her rostrum in such a manner that it remains on the inner surface of the
leaf. When she has thus introduced five or six eggs, between the different
folds, she rolls the remaining part of the leaf entirely together, so that it is
impossible to discover, from the outward appearance, in what manner the
eggs were deposited. ‘This beetle also finds the leaves of the pear-tree suit-
able for its purpose, rolling up the leaves of the Jeaf-buds. In a few days the
eggs are hatched in the rolls, and a whitish small worm comes out of each
egg, with black oblique stripes over the back, and a reddish head. In four
or five weeks it is fully grown. In the mean time, the petiole and the roll
have become so dry that they are easily torn off by a moderately high wind,
and fall to the earth. If this does not take place till the worm is fully grown,
it leaves the partly-consumed roll, buries itself in the earth, and appears
again in spring as a weevil. ‘This beetle, therefore, is the real weevil of the
vine, defoliating it, and preventing the grapes from ripening. As it is toler-
ably large, it may easily be perceived, and may consequently be destroyed,
particularly as it allows itself to be taken without flying away. When it is
numerous in orchards, it should be taken off, and the leaf-rolls pulled off, and
burnt or crushed.

Vine Scale Insect. —'This insect forms a longish, marbled-brown scale,
In old age the scale becomes blackish-brown, hemispherical and wrinkled.
The eggs, which are laid under the body of the. female, are covered with long
white wool. They are found on vines, particularly in gardens. Their
destruction is best effected by dry-brushing in autumn or spring

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 669

Vine Beetle. —It issues from the earth in spring when the vine has begun
to shoot, creeps upon the branches, bites off the leaf and flower buds. The
largest male specimens are little more than two thirds of an inch long, and
half an inch broad, black and shining; head large; thorax broad; abdomen
short; legs rather strong. ‘To protect the vine, the only way is to collect
and kill the beetle, which carries on its evil practices in open day, and is
discernible on accouut of its: form and size.

Vine Saw-fly.—The saw-fly of the vine is of a jet-black color, except
the upper side of the thorax, which is red, and the fore legs and under side
of the other legs, which are pale-yellow or whitish. The wings are semi-
transparent, smoky-color, with dark-brown veins. The body of the female
is one fourth of an inch in length; that of the male is somewhat shorter.
These flies rise from the ground in the spring, and lay their eggs on the
lower side of the terminal leaves of the vine. In the month of July the
false caterpillars, hatched from these eggs, may be seen on the leaves, in
littie swarms. Beginning at the edge, they eat the whole of the leaf to the
stalk, and thus proceed from leaf to leaf, till they have grown to their full
size. They then average five eighths of an inch in length; have twenty-two
legs; the head and the tip of the tail are black; the body, above, is light-
green, paler before and behind, — the lower side of the body is yellowish. As
a remedy, it is recommended to strew air-slacked lime upon them, and aiso
upon the ground under the vines.

Canker Worm. —This insect is most abundant on apple and elm trees : but
cherry, plum, and Jime trees, as well as some others, and many shrubs, suffer
from them. The leaves first attacked will be found pierced with small holes ;
these become larger and more irregular when the worms increase in size,
and, at last, the latter eat nearly all the pulpy parts of the leaves. There is
a great difference of color even among the same species, of the same age and
size. When very young, they have two minute warts on the top of the last
ring ; and they are then generally of a blackish or dusky-brown color, with
a yellowish stripe on each side of the body; there are two whitish bands
across the head, and the belly is also whitish. When fully grown, they
become ash-colored on the back, and black on the sides, below which the
pale-yellowish line remains. Some are found of a dull greenish-yellow, and
others of a clay-color, with slender blackish lines on the sides, and small
black spots on the back. When not eating, they remain stretched out at
full length, and resting on their fore and hind legs, beneath the leaves.
They leave off eating when about four weeks old, and begin to quit the
trees. After reaching the ground, they immediately burrow in the earth, to
the depth of from two to six inches, and they are there transformed. To
prevent the ravages of this worm, one method is to bar the ascent of the

670 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

wingless female up the stem of the tree. This is done by taking two pretty
wide pieces of board; plane them; make semi-circular notches in each,
fitting them to the stem or body of the tree, and fasten them together
securely at the ends. ‘The crevices between the boards and the tree may be
easily stopped with rags or tow; then smear the under side of the boards
with tar. The tar, being defended from the direct rays of the sun, will hold
its tenacity longer, and therefore need not be frequently renewed. ‘The
trees, in this way, will be less liable to be injured by the drippings of the
tar, bv leaving a margin of two or three inches on those parts of the boards
whica are next to the trees, to which no tar is applied. Another mode of
intercepting the insect’s path is to enclose the trees with collars, or circular
slips of tin or zinc. And still another mode — though these are only three
out of nearly a hundred that are practised — is, to dig around the trees, and
lay the earth smooth ; then take air-slacked lime, and strew an inch thick
around the trees, to the extent of two or three feet from the roots; then tar
the trees.

Apple-tree Borer. — They are the larve of a beetle called Saperda
bivittala, — the two-striped or the brown and white striped Saperda. This
beetle varies in length from a little more than one half to three fourths of an
inch. It comes forth from the trunks of the trees, in its perfected state,
early in June, making its escape in the night, during which time only it uses
its ample wings in going from tree to tree in search of companions and food.
The trees and shrubs principally attacked by this borer are the apple-tree, the
quince, mountain-ash, hawthorn and other thorn-bushes. The larve are fleshy
whitish grubs, nearly cylindrical ; the head is small, horny, and brown; the
first ring is much larger than the others; the next two are very short, and,
with the first, are covered with punctures and minute hairs; the following
rings, to the tenth inclusive, are each furnished, on the upper and under
side, with two fleshy warts, close together; the eleventh and twelfth rings
are very short; no appearance of legs; the grub cuts a cylindrical passage
through the bark, and pushes its castings backwards out of the hole, from
time to time, while it bores upwards into the wood. ‘The larva state con-
tinues two or three years, during which the borer will be found to have
penetrated eight or ten inches upwards in the trunk of the tree, its burrow
at the end approaching to, and being covered only by, the bark. Here its
transformation takes place. The pupa does not differ much from other pupe
of beetles ; but it has a transverse row of minute prickles on each of the rings
of the back, and several at the tip of the abdomen. ‘The final change occurs
about the first of June, soon after which, the beetle gnaws through the bark
that covers the end of its burrow, and comes out of its place of confinement

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 671

in the night. Killing it by a wire thrust into the holes it has made, is one
of the oldest, safest and most successful methods.

Vv. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS.

Earwig. — This well-known insect, considered, without cause, as very
dangerous to mankind, must find a place among those chiefly injurious to
fruit and flowers. Its size varies according to its age and sex. When fully
grown it measures almost an inch, including the forcep-like appendage at
the end of the abdomen; its breadth is one sixth of aninch. The body is light-
brown, free from hair; it has very short wing-cases, under which the wings lie
concealed, folded both longitudinally and transversely. It is usually under
the bark of trees, in the hollow stems of trees, in rolled-up leaves, and under
stones. In orchards, it particularly injures the fruit of trees which are trained
as espaliers, such as peaches and apricots, which are often entirely pierced
through in warm weather. ‘They also attack the other sorts of fruits, par-
ticularly apples and pears. In flower-gardens they destroy carnations, pinks,
and dahlias, in particular. The only certain method of destroying earwigs
is by catching them, which is best effected by hollow tubes, Jaid here and
there, in orchards and flower-gardens. The common reed is fit for this pur-
pose, but the hollow stem of the sunflower is even more so, as the insects
are eager in the pursuit of the remains of the sweet pith. They are also
easily caught between the folds of paper, or in pieces of cloth and linen laid
on the ground. They creep into these traps in the morning after their noc-
turnal rambles, and may easily be shaken out and killed at any time of the
day. Some place the flower-stands in vessels of water, which prevents the
earwigs from creeping, but not from flying, upon the plants.

Orange Scale Insect. —It appears like an elliptical nut-brown shield, and
is very plentiful on green-house plants, particularly on orange-trees, fasten-
ing itself upon the branches and leaves, particularly when the trees are
kept rather warm. It is best destroyed by washing the branches and leaves.
If this be done in autumn, it is a great advantage, as the old ones cannot
creep up again.

Mealy Bug.— This species is reddish, and strewed with white dust. At
the sides of the twelve segments of the body it is provided with small tuber-
cles. ‘The male is slender and gnat-like, with two rather broad wings, and
two long, brush-shaped tail filaments. It attacks a number of species of
plants, and can only be diminished in number by brushing them off careftlly
with soft brushes, and crushing them.

Oleander Scale Insect. — The female appears as a yellowish, round, flat
shield, almost destitute of limbs, which sucks plants with its rostrum. The
shield of the male larva is smaller than that of the female, and quite white-

672 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

The perfect male is brownish-yellow, dusted with white, and white wings.
Length, one thirty-sixth of an inch. It lives in amazing numbers on different
kinds of plants, particularly on oleanders, acacias, aloes, palms, &c., and can
only be gotten rid of by careful brushings.

Rosz Scale. — The female is like that of the former. The male pupa is
linear, doubly furrowed on the back. The perfect male is pale-red, dusted
with white, and white wings. Length, one thirty-sixth of an inch. They
live on the stems and old twigs of rose-trees, which are sometimes entirely
covered with them, and look mouldy. The best way of getting rid of
them is brushing them off with strong brushes before the rose-trees sprout.
Rose-trees are much injured by these insects.

Cactus Scale. —'The female bears a great resemblance to the oleander
scale, only that the muscle-shaped shield is more oblong and darker. The
male is orange-yellow, the pupa linear, doubly furrowed, powdery-gray.
lives principally on the different species of cactus.

Sweet Bay Scale. — The shield of the female is oval-shaped, brown, with
a reddish-yellow elevation before. The male is pale cherry-red ; the body
flat ; the horns or feelers rather shorter than the body. The shield of the
larva the same as the female, but narrower. It is difficult to remove, as it
is so firmly seated that brushing is not always sufficient ; a pointed stick
must therefore be had recourse to.

Rose Moth. —In early spring, as soon as the rose-tree begins to bud, a
very dangerous enemy to the growth of its leaves and blossoms arrives. It
is the more to be dreaded, as, from its smallness and peculiarity of form, it
is easily overlooked. If the new leaf-shoots are closely examined, a little
brownish scale is found here and there attached to them ; and upon nearer
inspection, we shall be convinced that it is a little case, in which a worm,
the larva of a small moth, is concealed, which gnaws the tender shoots.
When it has devoured one shoot, it removes with its house, and attacks
auother ; and thus, in a short time, one of these larve can strip a whole
branch of its shoots. The larva which lies in the little case is about half an
ich long ; yellow, with a black head, and black-spotted collar. It under-
goes pupation in its case, which enlarges from time to time, as necessity
requires. ‘The moth appears at the end of May. The whole body is silvery
shining gray; the upper wings strewed with minute black dots, deeply
fringed at the posterior edge ; the under wings are narrow, pointed, with
very long fringes. ‘The only certain way of preserving rose-trees from this
enemy is to look for the small cases in early spring, before the foliage is
developed, when an experienced eye will easily discover them. They must
be crushed immediately.

Plant Mite, or Red Spider.— A small insect of the spider class. It is

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 673

searcely visible to the naked eye; has eight legs; its color changes from
yellowish to brown and reddish, and on each side of the back is a blackish
spot. In the open air it usually attacks kidney-beans. Among trees, the
young limes mostly suffer, and the mites are found in thousands on the under-
side of the leaves. These leaves assume a dirty-yellow or brownish appear-
ance, and in the middle of summer the trees acquire an autumnal hue.
Frequently sprinkling the plants with cold water has been found efficient as
a means of destroying these insects. Also repeatedly fumigating the hot-
_ houses with strong tobacco-smoke injures them in some degree.

VI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS.

GeneraL Remarks. — Most of the insects that choose the various sorts
of corn for their food do not reject the other sorts of grasses, in the meadows.
The herbage of the meadows suffers from the roots of the grass-plants being
injured, which is chiefly occasioned by the larve of various species of cock-
chaffers living in the earth. When bare spots are seen on meadows, we
may be sure that the larve of the cockchaffer are there carrying on their
work of destruction. But the large swarms of those smaller species of cock-
chaffers sometimes seen flying about, towards evening, in the meadows, in the
spring, and at the beginning of summer, and the round holes which we
frequently find in meadows, through which they had crept out of the earth
clearly show that they had passed the first period of their life there, and at
the expense of the herbage.

Unspotted Lady-bird.— An insect injurious to many of the artificial
grasses. It has been observed on the common tare, sanfoin, and the differ-
ent sorts of clover. ‘This larva is only one sixth of an inch long, yellowish-
white, with single green spots, and the upper side of the body covered with
prickles. Its transformation takes place on the leaves. 'The pupa is light-
yellow, covered with minute hairs of the same color. ‘The perfect insect is
almost globular, yellowish-red on the upper side, with a brownish-red spot on
the thorax. The abdomen is brownish-black, and the legs reddish, or reddish-
brown. A good soil and moist weather, which will cause the herbage to
grow quickly and luxuriantly, and to be often mown, are the chief requi-
sites for diminishing the insect. By often removing the cut fodder from the
field, the insect will be disturbed in its propagation.

Migratory Locust. — An insect destructive to all vegetation. Their
native country is in the plains of Asia, between the Black and Caspian
Seas, Syria, Palestine, the northern coast of Africa, Egypt, &c., where
they sometimes increase to an incredible multitude ; and after eating up
everything in their native country, favored by the wind, they perform great
journeys in prodigious swarms. ‘Their swarms often measure several hun-

57 2s

674 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

dred fathoms in diameter, and are capable of darkening the sun, like thick
clouds. When they have alighted in a piace, they spare nothing that their

Fig. 364.

sharp teeth can master. Grain of all sorts, meadows, vineyards, and the
foliage of trees, are to them equally welcome as food. They stay till they
have eaten up everything in the country, and transformed it into a desert,
and then they resign themselves to the guidance of the wind, wherever it
may take them. Besides the locusts laying waste large tracts of country by
their voracity, and causing famine, they become also a real scourge to man-
kind, from the stench which arises from their dead bodies when they are
very numerous, and which breeds dangerous diseases.

This insect is one of the larger species of the genus to which it belongs.
Its length, from the head to the points of the wings, is from two to two and
a half inches. Its head and neck are green, its body brownish, the upper
wings brown, melting into greenish, and with darker quadrangular spots ;
the under wings are transparent. and greenish towards the body. ‘The blue
upper jaws, which, on the inner surface, are furnished with sharp teeth, are .
very characteristic organs, which they apply effectually to devouring the
vegetation.

Rye-grass Moth. — A moth injurious to the different species of grass, and
other meadow herbage. The moth is of middling size; the male, with
extended wings, is nearly an inch broad, and black, with yellow notches on
the abdomen ; the wings are thin, black, and fringed with the same color.
The female has a thick, long abdomen, which is whitish-gray, and woolly
at its exterior ; wings small, slender, brownish-gray, and not adapted for
flying. The caterpillar is found in April and May, living on rye-grass and
many other plants in meadows ; its ground-color is velvety-black, yellow at
the incisions and sides, with a black head and small yellowish warts, having
ash-gray hairs on them. ‘The destruction of this caterpillar is very difficult,
as it prefers living in long grass in the day-time, or in the ground. Break-

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 675

ing up the meadows in autumn appears to be the best method of destroying
the pupe concealed there.

Antler or Grass Moth. — A moth injurious to meadows. It is of middling
size ; its head and back are yellowish-brown, the collar lighter, almost yel-
low; the abdomen and legs are brownish-gray, the latter with darker joints ;
the upper wings are usually brownish-gray, with a darker mixture in the
middle ; the under wings are yellowish-gray. The caterpillar is brown or
blackish, with five lighter stripes along the back ; the first and last sections
are covered with a hard, smooth scale ; the stripes meet at the edge of the
anus ; the abdomen is blackish. The larve are an inch long, and they
undergo their transformation about midsummer, within a light cocoon, under
moss, stones, &c., changing into a blackish-brown, shining pupa. \ The food
of the caterpillar consists of all the soft sorts of grasses. It lives at the
roots, and eats all the germs. Although it is in existence in autumn, lies
benumbed in the earth in winter, and begins to eat again in the spring, yet
the effects of its devastations appear chiefly in the beginning of June, when
it has changed its skin for the last time. ‘The only means of extirpating or
diminishing this caterpillar consists in surrounding the attacked places, as
the ground permits, with shallow ditches, or by means of a plough with
deep furrows, as broad as possible, and turning pigs into these places to
devour the insects.

VII. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE COTTON PLANT.

Cotton Worm. — This pest, commonly known as the ‘army worm,”
makes its appearance at intervals, sometimes even of the length of twenty
years. It is produced from the eggs of a fly, deposited on the under side
of the leaf of the cotton plant during the night, and hatched out in a few
days. This fly belongs to the moth tribe, and has little horns projecting
from the head, which terminate in a bristle-like point, are of a drab
color, and measure five lines in length. Its bent wings overlap upon
its body; the under surface of the breast is of a dull, silvery-white,
insensibly terminating on the abdomen and wings in a russet color, the
upper surfaces of the wings and back of a changeable golden color, with
iron-colored, zigzag lines traversing the surface crosswise; the poste-
rior margins bordered with a narrow, pale, pinkish stripe, containing
small notches. A black spot marks the upper surface of each wing,
about the centre of the base; and the legs are white; the four hinder
ones being very long, as compared with those in front, which are short
and slender. The insect is about nine inches long from head to tail, and
measures about as much Between the tips of the expanded wings. The

676 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

number of eggs which the female deposits is uncertain. When first
hatched, the worm, although then but a minute living point, immediately
sets to work to devour the leaf; and, when it matures, which it does very
speedily, it wraps itself up in a leaf, like the caterpillar, casts its skin,
becomes a chrysalis, and, in ten days, again bursts forth a perfect fly,
which continues the work of reproduction. As soon as all the leaves in
one field are consumed, this terrible army takes up its line of march for
the neighboring one, there to prosecute the work of devastation. Late in
the season, however, another fly, of the ichneumon species, seizes upon
the cotton-worm as a depository for its eggs, and thus exterminates the
destroying army. The cotton fly is supposed to be a native of tropical
climates, and to come hither, at long intervals in search of its peculiar
food, after having entirely exhausted the home supply.

This worm is furnished with six fore, eight middle, and two hind feet:
the two first of the middle feet being small, imperfect, and apparently
useless for the purposes of progression, which is effected by alternately
stretching out the body, and again contracting it in the form of an arch.
When touched the worms double themselves up, and spring to a distance
several times their length ; but if undisturbed when not feeding, they rest
on the leaf with the fore part of the body elevated and slightly curved,
sometimes varied by a sidelong, swinging motion.

Remedies.—Al\though many remedies have been suggested and adopted
for destroying the fly before it has deposited its eggs —such as building
fires or placing lights in the fields—nothing has yet proved of any avail in
staying its increase after it has once made its appearance in any particular
district, until it is destroyed by the ichneumon fly.

The Red Bug, or Cotton Stainer.—This is a very destructive insect on
a cotton plantation, as it clusters in large numbers on the opening boll,
and so discolors the cotton as to render it unfit for the fabrication of
white goods. The male is about three-fifths of an inch in length from
the head to the point of the abdomen; the wing-cases are flat, brownish-
black, and edged with a distinct yellowish line ; the under wings, hidden
under the wing cases, are transparent, veined, yellowish in color, and
clouded with black ; the tibize and tarsi are black ; the under parts of the
body, as well as the thighs of the fore legs, present a bright red appear-
ance; and each segment of the former is marked with rings of yellowish
white. The head and eyes are red; the feelers four-jointed and black.
The female resembles the male in shape and color, but differs in length,
measuring about seven-tenths of an inch from head to tail. The nearer
the bolls approach maturity, the more injury do these bugs do to the

NOXIOUS INSECTS. 67T

cotton, by depositing their feeces on the wool, and imparting to it a red-
dish stain, which is indelible, and considerably lessens its market value.
As winter approaches, they either retire to the shelter of old stumps,
or burrow into the ground at the root of the cotton plant, where they
hybernate.

Remedies.—They may be collected from the plants by depositing in their
vicinity small slips of sugar-cane, on which they will cluster; and they
may also be greatly reduced in numbers by burning out all stumps and
dead trees standing in the fields.

The Boll Worm.—This very destructive worm is hatched from the eggs
of a moth, which is of a pale yellow, or shining ash color. Its body and
wings are one inch and an eighth in length; the thorax is slightly convex
and downy; the proboscis, which is folded spirally underneath, is double,

and half an inch long; the eyes are large, clear, and yellowish-green;
the feelers spindle-shaped, with very hairy joints. The abdomen and
wings are white ; the first being covered with downy hairs, and the latter
marked with a distinct, wavy, dark band near the border. The legs are
six in number. These moths multiply very rapidly; the female laying
between 500 and 1000 eggs on the fourth day, and dying three or four
days subsequently. During the day they lie concealed among the grass
and weeds, making their excursions entirely after sunset. This insect is
known as the Phalena Zea, or corn moth, of which three generations are
produced during the course of ayear. The second brood, which is hatched
late in July, or early in August, finding but little corn upon which it can
prey, is forced by necessity to deposit its eggs on the buds of the cotton
plant, or, as is sometimes the case, on the leaves. When first hatched,
the larva spins a web, in which it wraps itself, and, if by any accident
thrown from its position, it remains suspended by a single thread. After
the lapse of two or three days it descends from the tops of the cotton and
from the ends of the limbs, and commences its depredations by eating
through the calyx of the petal contained within the flower, which causes
the floral leaf to turn yellow, and the form to fall off. This operation is
repeated until four or five forms are destroyed, when it enters a boll, and
there lies concealed, feeding on its substance, until the time arrives for
its transformation. When full-grown, the worm will measure from one
to two inches in length, and, at first sight, appears to be of a pale yellow,
or light green color, though it has eight longitudinal strokes of white,
brown, and green, with one or two dots on each segment of the body,
along the lowest streak: it is smooth and shining in appearance, being

devoid of hair, with the exception of a few on each segment. It is cylin-
57 * ’

678 _ FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

drical in form, and tapers a little toward each end; but it is rather thick
in proportion to its length. It has sixteen legs —six in front, eight in
the centre, and two behind —and creeps along with a gradual motion,
quite unlike that of the army worm, which moves with a looping gait.
The head is brown, smaller than the body, and oval. After changing its
skin several times, and attaining its full size, the boll worm enters the
ground, where it wraps itself up in a silken cocoon, and changes into a
chrysalis, from which, in a month or six weeks, a perfect moth emerges.

This worm destroys an immense number of buds, which, falling off
when very young, are not readily observable as they lie upon the ground,
on account of their dark and withered appearance. When a bud is about
to fall, the worm forsakes it, and either attacks another, or else fastens
itself to a leaf, on which it remains until it sheds its skin, when it con-
tinues its ravages until it has acquired strength sufficient to enable it to
penetrate the nearly-matured bolls, which, if not entirely devoured, are
subsequently rotted by the moisture which penetrates through the punc-
tures made by the worm. Bolls which have been injured by the worm,
can be readily distinguished by the small hole through which it entered,
and, when dissected, will frequently be found partially filled with its
feeces.

Remedies.—As the moth makes its excursions only after sunset, large
numbers of them may be destroyed by lighting fires on the borders of
the fields, to which they are attracted by the light. Success has also
attended the experiment of placing plates, containing a mixture of vinegar
and molasses, on stakes scattered through the fields, and the moths were
thus trapped, in their eagerness to feed upon the mixture, the odor of
which drew them to it in considerable numbers. The benefit derived
from the introduction of a brood of young pigs into a cotton-field is incal-
culable, as they will scent out, root up, and devour every worm, grub, or
chrysalis, without at all interfering with the cotton plants.

The Cotton Louse.—This is a species of aphis, which pierce the outer
coatings of the leaves, principally on the under side, and, by constantly
draining the sap from the plant, enfeeble it, and cause the leaves to curl
up, turn yellow, and drop off. As the season advances, the young shoots
of the plant are also attacked, and frequently covered with these pests.
On their first appearance they are very minute, and of a greenish color,
but as they grow older, they change to a dark green, and, in some cases,
assume a nearly black color. When full grown they are about one-tenth
of an inch in length, and their fecundity is most astonishing — Providence
having gifted them with a procreative power possessed by no other

NOXIOUS ANIMALS. 679
known insects. They are alternately oviparous and viviparous, and the
sexual impregnation of one female suffices for all the generations which
proceed from it during the succeeding year. The impregnated ova are
deposited in the axils of the leaves, either of the cotton plant, or of some
neighboring tree, and are hatched the following spring, producing wing-
less, six-footed larv, which produce brood after brood, without connexion
with the male. Each succeeding brood is more fully developed than the
preceding, until, at last, winged males and females are produced; by
which the ova are developed, impregnated, and laid — and thus provision
is made for the continuance of the species for another year. As a set-off
against the enormous fecundity of this louse, they are eagerly sought for
and devoured by several tribes of small birds. The ichneumon fly also
destroys a large number by depositing a single egg in the body of a louse,
where it is hatched into a grub, which devours the interior substance,
leaving but a grey and bloated skin. Another fly, called the syrphus,
also makes war upon them very vigorously; the parent fly depositing her
eggs amongst the lice, where they are speedily hatched into grubs by the
heat of the sun, which immediately seek for, seize, and suck out the juices
of the louse, throwing away the empty skin.

VIII. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO CULTIVATED FIELDS.

The Pocket Gopher, or Pouched Rat. — Description. — This animal,
when full grown, measures eleven inches in length from the tip of the
nose to the end of the tail—the latter being two inches long. The head
is quite large; the nose blunt; the eyes remarkably small; the ears
nearly concealed ; the whiskers scant, and not as long as the head; and
the incisor teeth large and protruding. On the sides of the head large
pouches are situated, which are lined with fur, and extend back to the
shoulders. The incisor teeth are yellow, the feet and nails white; the
color of the body generally of a reddish-brown, but lighter on the belly;
the legs are short; the fore feet strong, and armed with very large, curved
nails, of which the centre one is the longest; the hind feet and nails are
smaller, and the tail, which has generally but a scant covering of hair,
is entirely bare at the tip.

Location and Habits. — The gopher is a prairie animal, confined to the
Western States and Territories, and throws up a mound of earth on the
prairie, in which it constructs a nest and rears its young. From the nest
subterranean galleries radiate in every direction, frequently intersecting,
and forming a complete labyrinth, the various turnings and windings of

680 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

which extend for miles. These galleries communicate with the surface
by means of shafts constructed at intervals of a few feet apart on one
side of the gallery, and through these openings the animal conveys the
dirt excavated; but when they have served the purpose for which they
were made, they are closed with earth from below. The main galleries
measure about four inches in diameter, and the side-cuts about two or
three inches. The animal conveys the earth out in its pouches, from
which it is ejected by muscular force —- being sometimes thrown to a dis-
tance of two feet. Loving obscurity, it rarely comes to the surface while
the sun is shining, always migrating from place to place at night; and
when compelled to seek food above ground, it invariably selects the
night-time for that purpose. It lives on roots, and is very valiant —
offering battle when interfered with. Five or six young are usually pro-
duced at a birth; though but one litter is brought forth during the year,
generally in the months of March or April.

Devastations on Cultivated lands.—This animal is the pest of the prairie
farmers; scarcely one crop escaping its ravages. They are very partial
to meadow lands, and not only devour the roots of the grasses, but render
the surface so uneven by the mounds they throw up, as to materially
interfere with the operations of mowing and raking. Grain fields are
also attacked; and, even after the grain is stacked, the gophers burrow
under the stacks, and destroy large numbers of sheaves. All the root
crops suffer by them ; and in potato fields they work under the hills, and
remove the tubers; sometimes destroying one-half of a crop before the
withered and dying vines give warning of the mischief that is being done.
Melons and pumpkins are occasionally bored out, and filled with earth,
and the orchards and hedges of osage orange destroyed by cutting off
their roots.

Remedies.—The only effectual mode of getting rid of this very trouble-
some animal is by trapping it; though it may sometimes be shot by
patiently watching for it near the newly-opened shafts, which may readily
be discovered by the freshly-excavated earth. Poison has been success-
fully used, in the form of strychnine or arsenic, introduced into vezeta-
bles, and placed in their subterranean quarters,

Silvery Mole (Scalops argentutus).— The true mole, common in Eng-
land and other parts of HKurope, has never yet been found in the United
States, and the nearest approach to it is the shrew mole (Scalops aquati-
cus), which, in its habits, very nearly resembles the one here described,
though its general habitat is the Southern and Eastern States, where it
is designated the ground mole, while that of the silvery mole is the

NOXIOUS ANIMALS. 681

Western and South-western States. In length, the silvery mole measures
8ix or seven inches from the point of the nose to the root of the tail, which
is about one inch long: the head, which is attached to the shoulders by a
very short neck, is remarkably stout, and the flexible, cartilaginous snout
projects nearly three-eighths of an inch from the upper jaw; the eyes are
concealed from view; there is no external ear, and the auditory apparatus
is a small hole, situated far back on the head; the fore-feet, which are
large and flat, measure nearly one inch in breadth, and but little less in
length, including the nails, which latter are large, flat beneath, and
slightly arched above; the hind feet are slender and weak, and the soles
of all the feet are entirely divested of hair, but on the upper surface they
are thinly covered with short hairs, as is also the tail; the tip of the snout
is entirely naked, but farther back it is sparsely clothed with short hair;
the tail, snout, feet, and nails, present a light, flesh-colored appearance,
and the latter are tipped with white; and the fur, which is very thick,
soft, and glossy, is of a silver-grey color, slightly tinged with lead at the
external ends.

Habits.—The nests of these animals are usually of considerable size,
well lined with soft grass, leaves, &c., and excavated in the ground, at a
depth varying from six to eighteen inches beneath the surface. They
usually select an old log or stump for the location of their nest, which is
approached by galleries, radiating from it in every direction, some of
which are sunk below the level of the nest, and enter it from beneath.
The female produces from two to four young at a birth, and appearances
would seem to indicate the birth of at least two litters each year. Like
all of its species, it rarely appears on the surface in daylight, except
during dull and cloudy weather, confining its excursions almost entirely
to the night. Its natural food is insects and worms, for which it burrows
in the ground, though it is accused of destroying the root crops, and even
of eating the corn after it has been planted. It is possible that the mole
may resort to vegetable food to compensate for a deficiency of its usual
supply of animal diet ; but, whether it does or does not, the damage which
it causes to the growing crops, by cutting off the roots of plants in its
search for its natural prey, is of itself sufficient to constitute it a nuisance
in any locality where it exists in considerable numbers ; yet the enlight-
ened agriculturist, while he takes measures for preventing an undue in-
crease, will be careful not to exterminate an animal which destroys cut-
worms, wire-worms, slugs, and all the other noxious pests usually found
in the gardens and fields.

Remedies.—Dogs may be trained to follow the mole’s tracks to his nest,

682 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK.

and dig him out; or traps of various kinds may be resorted to with con-
siderable success. Poisoned meat, shredded fine, when freshly laid in
their burrows, has proved serviceable; and in corn-fields they have been
prevented from doing injury by crossing the furrows between the rows,
which prevents them from readily driving their galleries through the
soil,

APPENDIX.

Tables by the use of which a Farmer may be assisted in his calculations.

LAND MEASUREMENT

May be simplified by the use of the annexed Tables, by which tke solid content of any piece
of land may be ascertained, after its length and width in yards have been ascertained by
stepping it off.

EXPLANATIONS. —If it is required to know the content of a piece of ground which measures
630 yards in length by 460 yards in breadth, tage from the respective columns the sums there
given: thus,

460 yards wide.

A. BR. P.

¥rom under 400 and opposite 500...... 41 1 12
<r 400. ss SOreeeed ae OL
Si LY Goes se 600..... 6 0 32
Cs - 60 “ a SOsesace Oe ke 20

50 1 21* solid content.

"‘Buol spavd Ogg

So also for the content of a piece of land 775 yards
long by 575 yards wide, take— - 575 yards wide.

yO tS
From under 500 and op. 500... 51 2 24 x
i Ee GOO.- 5 $ 200...20 2 26 =
rd « §00 « Wan) te) 0 eq
« « 7 « 600... 7 8 0 3
« Tere 200... 3 0 16 Se
Ss LC ly fee Fon 2. (0:26 =
a i=]
2

92 0 127 solid content.

If a field have unequal sides, measure it through the centre both ways, by which an average
will be at once procured; or the long and short sides may be separately measured, and half the
difference deducted from the longest side for the true length. ‘he content of a triangular field
may be learned by measuring the longest side, and then laying off a straight line from the
centre of that side to the opposite point of the triangle: one-half the length of the straight
line will give the mean width, while the length will be represented by the measure of the
longest side. A field having five or more sides may also be thus measured, after it has been
divided off into triangles; which may be readily done by running a line diagonally through
its centre from one corner to the opposite, for the length, and then other lines from this, as a
base, to the remaining corners of the field: the mean width will be one-half the length of each
of these lines added together.

® In adding up the different sums, it will be necessary to observe that the perches must be divided by 40 and
the roods by 4, and the roods and acres carried to their respective columns. Thus, we here have 101 as the sum
of the column marked perches, which, divided by 40, the number of perches in a rood, shows that it contains 2
roods and 21 perches: we place the 21 under the column and carry 2 to the next, which wil! make the sum of
that column, 5; but this we divide by 4, the number of roods in an acre, place the figure | under the rood column,
aud carry I tothe acres, which then sums up 50.

t In making the calculations for the following tables, all parts of a perch under one-half have not been regarded,
while all over one-half have been counted as a whole number. This will explain the slight discrepancy here
exhibited between this answer and that obtained by a more elaborate calculation, which would show 11 perches
instead of 12 (683)

684

TABLE I.— For reducing Yards into Acres, Roods, and Perches.

APPENDIX,

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A.R.P.

TABLE I.—For reducing Yards into Acres, Roods, and Perches.—( Continued.)

APPENDIX. 685

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686 APPENDIX.

TABLE II.

Exhibiting the Number of Plants which may be raised on a Perch of Land,
at different Distances:

Number of Inches Square Inches to

Trees or Plants. aeqnden: eaeKa

Inches over.

261 15 by 10
272 12 — 12
392 10 — 10
490 10 — 8
612 S08
816 2s
1069 c— 6
1633 6— 4
1960 5s
2450 4

TABLE III.

Exhibiting the Number of Plants which may be raised on an Acre of Land,
at different Distances:

Number of Feet Square Feet to

Trees or Plants.

Inches over.

asunder. each,

20 by 20 400 3860
16 — 18 way, 144
64% — 161 27.2) ove
beled oe 144° 72
10 —10 100 60
8 — 8 40
7 — 7

8 — 5

6 — 6

8 — 4

6 — 5

7 — 4

6 — 4

5 — 4

4 — 4

56 — 3

4 — 3

3 — 3

4 — 2

3 — 2

24 2

i — 2

2 — 4

eee |

7 -

TABLE IV.— Rotations practised in Pennsylvania. —(Farmer’s Cabinet).

Years. Field No.1| Field No.2| Field No.8] Field No.4| Field No.5| Field No.6| Field No.7| Field No.8
Wheat |} Rye Wheat | Clover | Corn Wheat | Clover | Oats
Rye Clover | Corn Wheat | Oats Clover | Wheat | Wheat
Clover | Wheat | Oats Rye Wheat | Wheat | Corn Clover
Wheat | Corn Wheat | Clover | Clover | Rye Oats Wheat
Corn Oats Clover | Wheat | Wheat | Clover | Wheat | Rye
Oats Wheat | Wheat | Corn Rye Wheat | Clover | Clover
Wheat | Clover | Rye Oats Clover | Corn Wheat | Wheat
Clover | Wheat | Clover | Wheat | Wheat | Oats Rye Corn

TABLE V.— For determining the Weight

Girth. Length. | ¥

. in.
t3

%
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
4
4
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
3
4
4
4
-t
5
5
5
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6

BPODEWSCOROOAWOCORVNAWSCORAWOOWSCOARWNOSCOROOANSCORWSOOAWOCOAGORWOORAWWOOAWOOORAWOS

Weight.

lbs.
180
195
210
225
240
202
219
236
253
270
286
244
263
282
300
319
338
357
271
292
315
334
355
3i7
398
420
298
821
344

Girth.

APPENDIX.

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Length. | Weight.

687

of Cattle by Measurement,

This Method of ascertaining the
Weight of Catile while living is of the
utmost utility to all those who are
not experienced judges by the eye,
and, by the following directions, the
weight can be ascertained within a
mere trifle. The beast standing
square.takeastringand putit round
the body just behind the shoulder-
blade; measure with a foot-rule
the circumference of the animal in
feet and inches, which is called the
girth; then with the string measure
from the bone of the tail, which
plumbs the line with the hinder
part of the buttock, along the back
to the fore-part of the shoulder-
blade; take the dimensions with
the foot-rule, as before, which is the
length, and work the figures in the
following manner: Girth of the bul-
lock, 6 feet 4 inches; length, 5 feet
5 inches; which, multiplied toge-
ther, make 3314 square superficial
feet; that, again, multiplied by 23
(the number of pounds allowed to
each superficial foot of all cattle
measuring less than 7 and more
than 5 feet in girth), makes 765
lbs. Where the animal measures
less than 9 and more than 7 feet
in girth, 31 is the number of pounds
to each superficial foot. Supposing
any small beast should measure 2
feet in girth, and 2 feet along the
back, which, multiplied together,
make 4 square feet; and that, mul-
tiplied by 11 (the number of pounds
allowed for each square foot of cat-
tle measuring less than 3 in girth),
makes 44 lbs. Again, suppose a
calf, sheep, etc. should measure 4
feet 6 inches in girth, and 3 feet 9
inches in length; these, multiplied
together, make 1634 square feet;
which, multiplied by 16 (the num-
ber of pounds allowed to all cattle
measuring less than 5 feet and more
than 3 in girth), gives 268 lbs. The
girth and length of black cattle,
sheep, calves, or hogs, may be as
exactly taken in this way as will be
necessary for any computation or
valuation of stock. and will answer
exactly to the weight of the four
quarters, exclusive of the offal. A
deduction must be made for a half-
fatted beast of 1 pound in 20 from
that of a fat one; and for a cow
that has had calves, 1 pound addi-
tional in every 20 must be allowed.

APPENDIX.

688

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APPENDIX.
TA Bib Vis
Exhibiting the Distance ordinarily travelled by a Horse in ploughing an Acre of
supposing the Horse to travel at the rate of 16 and 18 miles per day, respectively.

Land, together with the Quantity of Land worked during a Day 9 hours long —

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69C APPENDIX.

TABLE IX.

Showing how much Manure will be necessary to an Acre of Ground, supposing the
Heaps to be of certain Sizes, and deposited at definite Distances:

NUMBER OF LOADS REQUIRED TO THE ACRE, IF THE HEAPS ARE PLACED
SUPPOSED

1 1210 538 308 294 135 99 76 60 49 40
2 605 269 152 97 68 50 38 30 25 20
3 404 180 101 65 45 33 26 20 17 13
4 308 1385 76 49 34 25 19 15 13 10
5 242 108 61 39 27 20 16 12 10 8
6 202 90 51 33 23 17 13 10 9 7
7q 173 77 44 28 20 15 11 9 7 9
8 162 68 38 25 17 13 10 8 us 5
9 135 60 34 22 15 11 9 7 6 5
10 121 54 31 20 14 10 8 6 5 4

TABLE X.

The Results of Observations on the Reproductive Powers of Domestic Birds and
Animals.

Period of du GESTATION AND INCU-
Proper Age faenn of pit eae s ae BATION.
umber o eason
KINDS OF ANIMALS. for Repro-| the Power Females to| Copulation ae

duction. of Repro- h Mal Mean | Longest
duction. pecan se Period.| Period.

20 to 30
30 to 40

She-Goat.
He-Goat..--.....
She-Ass ..,
He-Ass.....
Bitch.....
Dog.... Bea
COCK crwescereiensince
Turkey, sit-

Hen ...
Duck...
Turkey

ting on the
eggs of the

on the eggs Hen

Hen, esas Ce 2

APPENDIX. 691

TABLE XI.

The pare of Inorganic Substances contained in several of the most commonly
cultivated Esculents.

(Prof. Johnston’s Lectures.)

PERCENTAGE OF CONTAINED IN

INORGANIC SUBSTANCES.
Field
Beans.

Pota-

Oats
Wheat. | without) Barley.| Rye. toes

Peas. |Turnips.
husk.

MEHR Kieaseus exedasc dovecs ecsunncesacs

26.18 | 13.64 22.08] 33.56 36.05) 39.82 55.75

See SO) Fetsasean 8.14 11.67| 10.60 7.42| 10.86 1.86
Lime...... oo-cere i 5.95 2.62 4.93] 5.77 5.29) 12.75 2.07
Magnesia............- - 7
Oxide of iron.. pearance
Oxide of manganese... oa bee te Coote aed Paeel Ween A Lt Seep eS Fe | eer
Phosphoric acid......... é
7 eee Acid..

Chlorine .. ts 2 meee 2 \ eevee p BA ores

99.50 | 99.76 | 99.72 | 101.55} 98.93

100.00

TABLE XII.

The proportion of Inorganic Substances contained in the Refuse of the most com-
monly cultivated Esculents.

(Prof. Johnston’s Lectures.)

PERCENTAGE OF CONTAINED

INORGANIC SUBSTANCES. Straw | Straw Husk Straw | Straw Straw Straw

of of of of of of of
Wheat. } Oats. Oats. | Barley.| Rye. Beans. | Teas.

MPR TG GE) IT OV pce con ons nes now sencncccn oe 1.30 1.83} 1.33 0.83 1.36 0.22 0.40
Oxide of manganese. ons

Phosphoric acid...
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine...
Chloride of "sodium.
Alumina......

99.78 | 100.00} 99.20 | 98.15 | 100.11

692 APPENDIX.

TABLE XIII.

The proportion of several Elementary Substances contained in 100 parts of some
of the most commonly cultivated Esculents.

(Prof. Johnston’s Lectures.)

| PERCENTAGE OF
Gluten
SUBSTANCES. Husks or starch, Gum,| Albumen Fatt Saline
| Water. wa and Sugar. “enc Matter. Matter.
3 ete.
WIRGAD, .ss-nccpodsnansnocse 15 15 55 10 to 19 | 2 to4 2
Barley .. = 15 15 60 12 to 15; 2 to 8 3
Oats: cu 16 20 60 14 to 19 | 5 to7 4
WV Oc seme ate scence 12 | 10 to 20 60 10 to 15 | 3 to4 2
Tndian corn.. .. 14 6 70 12 5 to 9 14
Buckwheat ... nice 15 25 50 8 0.4 4
Rice. eevee 2 3 3 75 7 0.7 4
Beans.. cece 14 8.11 40 24.28 2.3 3
Peas ... Saka d 14 9 50 24 2.1 3
Potatoes... 75 + 18 2 0.3 1
Turnips. 85 2 9 uss 0.3 6 to 4-5
CEEOER sister cacsee te cons 85 3 10 oO 0.4 1% to 2
Mangel-Wurzel......... 85 2 11 PAU ee A555; 5 34 to 114
Meadow hay ..... 14 30 40 7.1 2 to 5 5 to 10
Clover hay..... 14 25 40 9.3 3 to 5 9
Pea straw... 10 to 15 25 45 12.3 15 4 to 6
Oat straw....... 2 45 35 1.3 0.8? 6
Wheat straw.. 12 to 15 50 3 1%} 2 to 34 5
Barley straw.. 12 to 15 50 30 ns omen We ovr See 5
Rve straw...... 12 to 15 45 3 DAS eee A8 fo iececc5 4
Indian corn stalk 12 25 52 3.0 17 3 to 7

PABA xk Ve

Tke proportion of several Elementary Substances contained in the produce of one
Acre planted with the Esculents most commonly cultivated as food for Stock.

(Prof. Johnston’s Lectures.)

The starch, gum, and sugar form fat, while the gluten, albumen, and caseine add to the
flesh and muscle.

Weight of Weight of

. Gluten, Albu- | Starch, Gum Weight of
Weight of i ’ 4

ONE ACRE PLANTED IN Acre. ga seine in the Faf, in the produce of one
+ produce of one produce of Acre.

Acre. one Acre.

Ibs. Ibs.
Field beans......... 0 25 bush. 64 450
PGKS concen cccirs a Ai 0 66 380
Oats... 50) 42 290
Hay ..... 3 tons. ao 480
Potatoes... ie nc 600

Carrots....
Turnips..... +
Wheat straw.......

Oat Straw... sie cessce
Barley straw.........

DEFINITION OF WORDS,

SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND PECULIAR,

COMMONLY USED IN CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURAL AND KINDRED SU .JECTS.

Abdomen. — Lower part or lower belly of an
animal.

Abrasion.— Wearing or rubbing.

Acari. — ‘Ticks; small articulated insects.

Acetate. — A neutral salt.

Achromatic. — Destitute of color.

Acrid.— Sharp, pungent, bitter.

Aculeated. — Having prickly points.

Acute-lobed. — Having pointed divisions.

Aerate.—'’o combine with carbonic acid or
fixed air.

Aflermath.—A second crop of grass in the
same season.

Albumen.— A substance found in some seeds
and vegetables, resembling in character
the white of an egg.

Alburnum.— The softer part of wood, between
the inner bark and the wood; sap.

Alleatine. — Waving the properties of alkali.

Alluvion. — Alluvial land.

Alterative.— A medicine which changes the
habit, and restores healthy functions.

Aluminous. — Pertaining to alum or alumina.

Ammonta.— A volatile alkali, existing in its
purest form in a state of gas.

Amphibious. — Capable of living in air and
water.

Animaicula,— An animal, the figure of which
is discernible only through a magnifying
glass.

Annual. — A plant that lives only during one
year.

Annular. — Having the form of a ring.

Antenne.—'The horns or feelers of insects,
projecting from the head.

Anterior. — Before, in time or place; prior.

Anther.— The case or part of the flower con-
taining pollen, or the male part of a flower.

Antiseptic. — Opposing or counteracting putre-
faction.

Aperient.— Opening; laxative.

Apex.— The tip, point, or summit, of any-
thing.

Aphis.—A genus of insects ; vine-fretter ; plant-
louse. .

Apterous. — A wingless insect.

Arable. — Fit for ploughing or tillage.

Aroma.— The odoriferous principle; a pleasant
smell.

Aromatic.— Fragrant; spicy; odoriferous.

Arsenious. — Containing arsenic.
Artery.— A vessel or tube conveying blood
from the heart to all parts of the body.
Ascescent.— Having a tendency to sourness;
acidity.

Astringent.—Binding; strengthening; opposed
to laxative.

Atlas. — The first joint of the neck.

Aviary.— An enclosure for keeping birds con-
fined.

Awn.— The beard or bristles of grain and
grasses.

Awned. — Having a beard.

Awnless. — Destitute of a beard.

Azil. — The space or angle formed by a branch
or a leaf with the stem.

Azotized.— From azote, a gas fatal to animal

life.

Basal.— Pertaining to or constituting the
base.

Base.—'the principle matter of a mixture or
composition.

Bast. — Rope, or cord. made of the bark of the
lime-tree or linden.

Batten.— To fatten. A piece of board or scant-
ling, a few inches wide.

Bay.— An enclosed place, in a barn, for depos-
iting hay.

Bere. — The name of a species of Scotch barley.

Biennial. — Once in two years; continuing two
years.

Bifurcation. — A forking, or division into two
branches.

Big.— A species of barley.

Blanched. — W hitened.

Bout.— A turn; a single part of an action car
ried on at successive intervals.

Brindle. —Spottedness.

Butyraceous. — Resembling butter.

Calcareous. — Partaking of the nature of lime,

Calcined. — Reduced to a powder by the action
of heat.

Calycine. — Relating to, or like, a calyx.

Calyx. — The outer covering of a flower.

(693 )

694

Cambium.— A glutinous secretion, which, in
spring, separates the alburnum of a plant
from its inner bark.

Capsule. — The seed-vessel of a plant.

Carbon. — Pure charcoal.

Carbonaceous. — Pertaining to charcoal.

Cartilage. — Gristle.

Caseous. — Resembling cheese.

Caulescent.— Having a perfect stem; rooted
like the cabbage.

Cuustic.— Any substance which, applied to
living animals, acts like fire.

Cellular. — Consisting of or containing cells.

Cellulose. — The substance left after the action
of solvents upon vegetable tissues.

Chap.— The upper and lower part of the jaw.

Dhermes. — An insect.

Chine. — The backbone or spine of an animal.

Chronic. — Continuing a long time.

Chrysalis.—'The second apparent change of
the maggot of an insect, before its appear-
ance as a butterfly.

Chury-worm.— An insect that turns about
nimbly.

Chyle.— A whitish fluid separated from food
by means of digestion.

Cleat.— A piece of wood used to fasten ropes
upon.

Coagulate.—To curdle; to thicken; to change
from a fluid to a solid mass.

Cocoon.— An oblong ball, or covering of silk.
fabricated by the silk-worm; the egg-shaped
ease of the chrysalis.

Collateral. — Being by the side; side by side;
on the side; side to side.

C.lter.— The fore iron of a plough, with a
sharp edge. that cuts the earth or sod.
Concave. — Hollow; arched, like the inner sur-

face of a spherical body.

Conical. — Round, and decreasing to a point.
Convex.— Rising or swelling on the interior
surface into a spherical or round form.

Coriaceous. — Leathery; resembling leather.

Corolla.— The innermost of the envelopes by
which the organs of fructification of many
flowers are covered; the second of two en-
velopes that surround the stamen and
pistil.

Culinary. — Relating to the kitchen.

Culm.— The stalks or stems of corn or grasses,

Curd. — The thickened part of milk, which is
formed into cheese.

Curvilinear. — Having a curved line.

Cutaneous. — Belonging to the skin.

Cuticle. —'The thin, exterior coat of the skin.

Decoction. — The strength of leaves, seeds, or
other matter, drawn out by boiling.

Defecate.— To free from impurities; to purify.

Dentata. — Pertaining to the teeth.

Dentated. — Uuving points like teeth.

Dew-lap.—'The flesh that hangs from the
throat of oxen, which laps or licks the
dew, in grazing.

Diadelphous. — Having the stamens united in
two parcels.

Diagonal. — Being in an angular direction.

Diameter.— A right line passing through the
centre of an object, from one side to the
other.

Dichotomous. — Regularly Jivided by pairs.

Disk. — The whole surface fa leaf; the fleshy

DEFINITION OF WORDS.

Substance between the stamens and

pistil.

Diuretic.— Tending to produce discharges of
urine.

Drench.— A draught; « portion of medicine to
purge a beast.

Drupe.— A general name for a one-celled, one
or two-seeded fruit, which does not open
when ripe, as the peach. cherry, plum, &e.

Edible. — Fit to be eaten as food.

Electricity —A very thin fluid diffused through
most bodies, rapid in its motion, and powe
erful.

Elliptical. — Oval.

Elongation. —'’he state of being extended.

Elytra.— The sheaths of un insect; a case
covering the wings.

Emarginate.— Having a notch at the point.

Emasculation. — Castration.

Embracing. — Enclosing; clasping; holding in
embrace.

Embrocation.— The liquid with which an af-
fected part is washed.

Embryo. — Anything in its first rudiments, or
unfinished state.

Epidermis.— A thin membrane, covering the
skin of animals or the bark of trees.

Erosion. — Eaten away; corrosion; canker.

Esculent.— Any plants fit for food; though
sometimes used as a general name for edi-
ble roots.

Esophagus.— The gullet; the canal through
which food and drink pass to the stomach,

Espalier.— A row of trees planted about a
garden or in hedges.

Expression.— The act of pressing or squeezing
out.

Extravasuted. — Forced or let out of its proper
vessels,

Ezxude.— A discharge of moisture, juice, or li
quid, by bodies and plants.

Fallowing.— Ploughing and harrowing land
without sowing it.

Farina. — Fine dust or powder contained in
the anthers of plants.

Farinaceous.— Mealy; pertaining to meal.

Faucet. — The spigot of a barrel.

Febrile.— Pertaining to fever.

Fecal. — Containing or consisting of dregs, sedi-
ment or excrement.

Fecula.—'The green matter of plants; starch
or farina.

Fecundation.— The act of making fruitful or
prolific: impregnation.

Fermentation. — (nternal motion of the parti-
cles of animal and vegetable substances,
occasioned by heat or moisture, and caus-
ing an extrication of gas and heat.

Ferruginous. — Partaking of iron.

Fetlock.— A tuft of hair growing behind the
pastern joint of many horses.

Fetus. —'The young, in the womb or egg, when
perfectly formed.

Fibrous. — Composed or consisting of fibres.

Figment. — A thing feigned or imagined.

Filament. — A fibre: a fine thread, of which
flesh, nerves, skin, plants, roots, &c., are
composed. :

Filiform.— Uaving the form of a thread or
filament.

Filtrate.— To purify; to strain.

DEFINITION OF WORDS.

695

Fining.—The purification of substances by } Incised.—Cut; notched.

the addition of ingredients which separate
and deposit the objectionable matter.

Flaccid. — Soft and weak; limber.

Flank.—'The fleshy part of an animal’s side
between the ribs and the hip.

Fleshy.— Plump; pulpy.

Flitch. — A hog’s side salted and cured.

Flocculent.— Adhering in locks or flakes.

Floret. — A little flower.

Foment.— To bathe with warm liquors.

Fructification. — Rendering productive of fruit.

Fulerum.— A prop or support.

Fungus. — A mushroom ; aspongy excrescence.

Fusiform.— Shaped like a spindle.

Gastric. — Belonging to the belly or stomach.

Germen.— The ovary or seed-bud of a plant.

Gestation. — Carrying young in the womb from
conception to delivery.

Girt. — A bandage or strap.

Glaucous.— Dull green; having a bluish tinge.

Globular.— Round; spherical.

.Globule. — A small particle of matter of a sphe-
rical form.

Glume.— The outer covering of corn and
grasses; the husk or chaff.

Gluten.— A tough, elastic, gray substance,
found in the flour of grain.

Gramineous. — Pertaining to grass.

Granulation. —'he act of forming into grains.

Gypsum. — Plaster-stone.

Hackle. — Kaw silk; any flimsy substance un-
spun; a machine to dress flax or hemp.

Haulm. — Straw ; the stem or stalk of grain. &e.

Headland,— A ridge or strip of unploughed
land at the ends of furrows, or near a fence.

Heathery.— A place overgrown with shrubbery
of any kind.

Hemispherical.—Containing half a sphere or
globe.

Herbaceous.—Having green and cellular stalks;
being annual as to stem, but perennial as
to root.

Hexagonal. — Waving six sides and six angles.

Hispid.— Rouch: having stiff hairs or bristles.

Hoar-frost.— White particles of ice formed by
the congelation of dew or watery vapors.

Hoary. — Having a grayish hue.

Hock. — Joint of an anima} between the knee
and the fetlock; a part of the thigh.

Holm. — Low, flat. rich land, on the banks of a
river.

Hopper.— A wooden trough through which
grain passes into a mill; a vessel in which
seed-corn is carried for sowing.

ee Parallel to the horizon; on a
level.

Hybrid.— Monzrel; an animal or plant pro-
duced from the mixture of two species.
Hydatid. — A bladder-like animal. filled with
aqueous fluid, which infests the human
interna! organs particularly the liver; an

insect found in the skulls of sheep.

Hydraulic.— Relating to the conveyance of
water through pipes.

Hydrogen. — A gas constituting one of the ele-
ments of water.

Imbricated. — Indented with concavities; over-
lapping. .

Impervious. — Not penetrable by light, nor per-
meable to fluids.

Incisive. — Having the quality of cutting or
separating: incisive teeth, in animals, are
the fore teeth.

Indigenous. — Native to the country or place.

Injection. — Throwing in; liquid medicine
thrown into the body by means of a sy-
ringe or pipe.

Innoxious. — Free from mischievous qualities.

Integument. — That which naturally invests or
covers another thing.

Internode. —The space between two joints of a
plant.

Interstice. — The space between things.

Iridescent. — Having colors like the rainbow.

Trrigation.— A mode of watering land by the
aid of drains or canals.

Jugular.— Pertaining to the throat or the
neck.

Keel. —'The two lowest petals of some flowers.

Labial. — Pertaining to the lips.

Lachrymal.— Generating or secreting tears.

Lanceolate. — Shaped like a lance.

Larva.— An insect in the caterpillar state.

Larynx. —'Vhe upper part of the windpipe; &
cartilaginous cavity.

Latent. — Concealed.

Lateral. — Proceeding from the side.

Lea.— A meadow or plain.

Legume. — Fruit similar to the pod of a pea.

Lever.— A bar of any substance turning on &
support called the fulerum or prop.

Tigament.— Anything that ties or unites one
thing or part to another; a strong sub-
stance, serving to bind one bone with an-
other.

Tigneous. — Consisting of wood.

Line. — The twelfth part of an inch.

Linear. — Consisting of lines; slender; in a
straight direction.

Lithe.—'That may be easily bent; pliable;
limber.

Lobby. — A small hall or waiting-room.

Lobe.— A division of a leaf.

Longitudinal. — Running lengthwise.

Lotion. — A liquid preparation for washing the
body.

Lupulin. — The fine yellow powder of hops.

Macerate.—'Yo steep in water until nearly dis
solved.

Mal-odorous. — Having an offensive odor.

Manipulate.—To work with the hands; to
handle.

Marl. — A species of limy earth.

Mutrice —'The womb; the place where any-
thing is formed or produced.

Mattock. — A tool to grub up weeds.

Maw.— The stomach of beasts; the crop of
fowls.

Membrane.— A thin, white, flexible skin.

Melucarpal. — Part of the hand between the
wrist and the fingers.

Metamorphose.—To change into a different
form; to transform.

Miasmata.—Pertaining to putrefactive vffluvia.

Midge.— A small insect; a gnat or flea.

Midrib.—'The middle rib or vein of a leaf.

Milch. — Giving milk.

Molting.— Shedding a natural covering, a8
hair, feathers, skin, or horns,

Mongrel. — Of a mixed breed,

696

Mucilage. — One of the elements of vegetables: |
the liquor which moistens the joints of
animal bodies.

Mucous. — Slimy; glutinous.

Mulch. — Ualf-rotten straw.

Mullion. — A division in a window-frame; a
bar.

Must. — Unfermented wine, newly pressed from
the grape.

Nasal.— Pertaining to the nose.

Navicular.— Shaped like a boat.

Nitrogen.— An element of air called azote,
fatal to animal life.

Nocturnal. — Pertaining to the night.

Normal. — Perpendicular; relating to rudi-
ments or first principles.

Noxious. — Hurtful; harmful.

Oblique. — Not direct; slanting.

Oblong. — Longer than broad.

Obovate. — Having the narrow end downward.

Obtuse.— Blunt; not pointed or acute.

Occipital. — Pertaiuing to the back part of the
head.

Offset. — A shoot; a sprout from the roots of a
plant.

Organic bodies. — Bodies with organs on the
action of which depend their growth and
perfection.

Csier. — Willow twig.

Ova. — Eggs.

Oval. — Of the shape or figure of an egg.

Ovary.—'The part where eggs are formed, or
in which the fetus is supposed to be
formed.

Ovate. — Egg-shaped.

Oviparous.— Bringing forth, or producing
young by eggs.

Ovule.— A body destined to become a seed.

Ovum.— Ege-shaped.

Oxygen.— That part of wir which may be
breathed ; vital air, or the basis of it.
Pad.— A road; an easy-paced horse; a soft

saddle; to beat a way smooth and level.

Paddock. — A small @ closure for animals.

Palmated.— Having the shape of a hand;
webbed.

Palpi. — Feelers.

Panary.— Pertaining to bread.

Panicle. — A species of flowering; unfolding of
blossoms.

Parallelogram.— A figure whose opposite sides
are equally distant throughout.

Parasitic.—Growing on the stem or branch
of another plant.

Parietal. — Bones forming the sides and upper
part of the skull.

Parterre. — Level ground laid out and fur-
nished with evergreens and flowers.

Pastern.— That part of a horse’s leg between
the joint next to the foot and the coronet
of the hoof.

Peecant. — Morbid; bad; not healthy.

Pedicle. — The fina! division of a common stem
or stalk.

Peduncle.— The flower-stalk of a plant.

Pellet. — A little ball.

Pellicle.— A thin skin or film.

felt.— A beast’s skin, with hair on it; a raw
hide.

Peltato-palmate. — Waving the shape of a hand,
and of a rough hairy texture.

DEFINITION OF WORDS.

Pelvis.— The cavity of the body forming the
lower part of the abdomen.

Pendulows. —Fanging from a stem or branch,

Ferch. — A pole; a roost for fowls.

Percolation. — The act of filtering or straining.

Perennial. — Lasting through the year; a plant
which lives more than two years.

Perforate.—Vo bore through; to make a hole
or holes through anything.

Permeable.—'that may be passed through
without displacement of its parts.

Perspective. — View in the distance.

Pervious. — That may be penetrated by another
body or substance.

Petal. — A fiower-leat.

Petiole. — A leaf-stalk; the foot-stalk of a leaf.

Phenogamous. — Having stamens and pistils
distinctly visible.

Phosphate.— A salt formed by a combination
of phosphoric acid with a base of earth,
alkali, or metal.

Pile.— 'Vhe hairy surface of an animal’s skin.

Pinnate. — Divided into a number of pairs of
leaflets.

Pistil. — An organ of female flowers adhering
to the fruit for the reception of the
pollen.

Plait.— A fold; a tress; braid.

Pledget.— A small, flat roll of lint or linen.

Poliard. — A tree lopped.

Pollen.— The fine fecundating dust or flour
contained in flowers. :

Polygamous.— Having male and hermaphro-
dite, or female and hermaphrodite, or male,
female, and hermaphrodite flowers, on the
same, or different plants.

Pomace.— The substance of ground apples,
either before or after the cider is ex-
pressed.

Porous. — Filled with pores, which are passages
in the skin or substance of a body.

Posterior. — Coming after; the hinder.

Postern. — Back; any small door or gate.

Probang.— An instrument of whalebone and
sponge, for clearing the throat or gullet.

Proboscis. — A snout; an organ formed by the
prolongation of the nose.

Prolegs. — Fore legs.

Propolis.— A thick, odorous substance, resem-
bling wax.

Pubescent. — Covered with down or hair.

Pupa.— An insect in that state in which it re
sembles an infant in swaddling clothes.

Purgatice. — Waving the power of cleansing;
evacuating the bowels.

Purge.— A medicine that evacuates the body
by stool.

Pus.—The white or yellowish matter gene
rated in uleers and wounds.

Quadrangular.— Square; having four sides,
and four prominent angles. t

Quicklime. — Any limy substance deprived of
its fixed or carbonic air.

Racemose.— Having the flowers arranged along
an axis, as in the hyacinth and currant.

Rachis. — A stem that proceeds from the base
to the top of the flower.

Rattooning. — Sending up many stalks from an
old root; several crops being thus gathered
from one planting.

Rectangular. — Right-angled.

bs)

DEFINITION OF WORDS.

Rectum.— The third and last of the large in-
testines.

Reflected. — Bent, or directed backward.

Reniform.— Having the shape of kidneys.

Rick. — A long pile of grain or hay, sheltered
with a kind of roof.

Rootlet. — A small root, or the fibre of a root.

Rugose. — A leaf with veins more contracted
than the surface.

Rump.—'the end of the backbone of an ani-
mal, with the parts adjacent.

Saccharine. — Having the qualities of sugar.

Saline. — Consisting of salt.

Scape. — The flowering stem of a plant.

Scar*fy.—'lo seratch; to make small incisions
in the skin with an instrument.

Scion. — A young shoot, twig, or sprout of a
tree.

Scrotum. — The place containing the organs of
generation.

Scullery.— A place where dishes, kettles, &c.,
are kept.

Seedling. — A young plant or root just sprung
from the seed.

Segment, — A part cut off or divided.

Semilunar. — Kesembiing in form a half moon.

Septic. — Promotive of putrefaction.

Serous.—'thin; watery.

Serration.— Formation in the shape of a saw.

Serum. — Thin, transparent part of blood; the
thin part of milk.

Sessile. — Applied to a leaf growing on a stem
without. having any foot-stalk.

Setiform. — Having the form of a bristle.

Seton. — Small threads, or a twist of silk. drawn
through the skin by a large needle, for the
discharge of humors.

Sheath. — A rudimentary leaf of a plant which
wraps around the stem.

Shock, — Sixteen sheaves of wheat, rye, &c.

Slet.— A broad. flat. wooden bar.

Sole. —The bottom of a thing, and on which it
stands upon the ground.

Solitary. — Growing siugly.

Spatula.— A slice; an instrument for spread-
ing plasters, &c.

Spermatic. — Consisting of seed, or pertaining
to the elements of production.

Spike. — A species of inflorescence, as in wheat,
rye, &c.; an ear of corn or grain.

Spikelet. — A small spike; one of a great many
small spikes collected in a mass, as in grass.

Spine. — A large, woody thorn.

Spiracle.— A small aperture in animal and
vegetable bodies through which air passes;
any small hole or vent

Spongiole. — A supposed expansion of minute
parts at the termination of roots, like a
sponge, for absorbing the nutriment of
plants.

Spore, Sporule.—- The part of flowerless plants
which performs the funciion of seeds.

Stallion. — A male horse not castrated.

Samen.— An organ of flowers for the prepara-
tion of the pollen e> feeundating dust

Standard. — A tree or stub that stands singly
without being supported.

Stellate.— When more leaves than two sur-
round the stem in a ring; resem bling a
star; radiated.

697

Sternun:. — The breast-bone.

Stifle.—'The joint of a horse next to the but-
tock.

Stigma.—The top of the organ of female
flowers.

Stipule.— A scale at the base of the leaf-stalks
of some plants; or one which protects the
young leaves.

Stomata.— Oval spaces between the sides of
cells, in plants, opening into other cavi-
ties, and bordered by a rim.

Slool.— A sucker; a shoot from the bottom of
the stem or root of a plant.

Strata. — Beds; layers.

Strike. — The name given to a single running
of ungranulated sugar,

Style. — The middle portion of the organ of
female flowers, connecting the stigma with
the germ.

Sub-lanceolate. — Having somewhat of a lance
shape.

Sub-sesstle. — Waving very short foot-stalks.

Subsoil. — The bed or layer of earth which lies
beneath the surface-soil.

Subulate. — Shaped like an awl.

Subulate-linear. — Having awl-shaped lines.

Succulent. — Full of juice; juicy.

Sucker. —'The shoot of a plant from the roots
or lower part of the stem.

Sulphate. — A neutral salt. formed by sulphu-
ric acid in combination with any base.

Sulphuric. — Containing sulphur.

Suture. — The seam or joint which unites the
bones of the skull; a method of closing
wounds.

Sward.— The grassy surface of land; turf.

Swath.—The whole breadth or sweep of a
scythe in mowing or cradling.

Tale. — A greasy-feeling magnesian mineral,
having a pearly lustre, used instead of
chalk for tracing lines on wood, cloth, &e.

Tarsi.— Belonging to the feet.

Tassels. —'The fiower ribbons, or heads of
plants. as of corn.

Temporal. — Pertaining to the temple or tem-
ples of the head.

Tension. — Strained or stretched.

Tenuous. — Thin; small; minute.

Tepid. — Moderately warm.

Terminal. — Growing at the end of a branch or
stem; terminating.

Terrace. — A raised bank of earth, with sloping
sides; a balcony,

Testicles. — Male organs of generation.

Thorax.— The breast; the chest; the part of
the body between the neck and abdomen;
the second segment of insects.

Tibie. — The bones which form the second seg-
ment of the leg.

Tonic. — A medicine that gives vigor and action
to the system.

Transpiration. — Passing off through the pores
of the skin.

Transverse.— Lying or being across, or in a
cross direction; to overturn.

Trench. — To cut or dig a ditch or channel; to
fortify, by cutting a ditch and raising a
rampart; to furrow, by ploughing.

Trepanning. —Opening the skull, to relieve
the brain.

698

Trichotomous. — Having three divisions.

Triennial, — Lasting for three years.

Trifoliate. — Having three leaves or leaflets.

Trocar.— An instrument for tapping in case
of dropsy.

Tubercle. — A small swelling, tumor, knob, or
rough point.

Tuberous. — Roundish, fleshy vegetable bodies,
connected into a bunch by intervening
threads.

Tunicated.— Covered with a tunic or mem-
branes; coated, as a stem.

Uterus. —The womb.

Vacuum.— An empty space; one void of air or
matter.

Valve.— A division of the fruit of a plant.

Vell.— A skin; a rennet-bag.

Ventral. — Belonging to the belly.

Verandah.— An open portico, formed by ex-
tending a sloping roof beyond the main
building.

Vertebra.— A joint of the spine or backbone
of an animal.

Vertical.—In a perpendicular direction.

DEFINITION OF WORDS.

Vestibule.—The porch or entrance into a
house; an ante-room.

Vexillum.— The upper single petal of a flower
like that of a pea.

Viscid.—Glutinous: sticky.

Viviparous.— Producing young in a living
state.

Wattle.— The fleshy bunch under the throat
of a cock or turkey. .
Wear.— A dam in a river to stop and raise the

water.
Whey.— The watery part of milk separated
from the thick part, in making cheese.
Whorled.— An arrangement of three or more
leaves or limbs around a common centre.

Windlass.— A machine for raising great
weights; a handle by which anything is
turned.

Withers. — The junction of the shoulder-bones
of a horse, at the bottom of the neck.
Yolk.— The oily secretion from the skin of

sheep, which renders the pile soft end
pliable.
Zig-zag. — Haying short turns.

LN DE X.

A.
PAGE
PAE Olisverevicsecestnss scsctescs acesccvsbcoceusnes éccass GUL
Abscess in animals.. 367
ACACIA ..5.0060 6 Sr akseinewvenducucvavasesacvessen (OG
‘AFRICAN SuGAR-CANE.

Description ...... oP RECA POC PELOLEL DEE 114
Varieties, soil, rattoonin; g, culture,
uses ... seea « 115

Age of cattle .. 324
“© of sheep .. « 344
Ailanthus....... oe pare diibil
PRIGERNGY CALC ciccccdescocaccostesecrcsuccccesss 335
Almond... : «e. 309
Alterative medicines for animals .. ddets'sixbers7 O00
Altering the proportion of the ingredients
InGOUS, 22... < 26
Althea frutex . ........ -. 487
Amaranthus tricolor. dadcenedsstisundusemietaeatasens 487
American horses, Mexican, Canadian,
United States .............cc0cee0- Meth anh oeresnen . 861
American Silver Fir ..... «-. 501, 504
American White Spruce .. e+e» 501, 504
Analysis of soils ....... iaieodavenctiaredtacs’shesrever 25
Anatomy of the ox ... 323
Bt of the pig ....... . 852
a of the horse .,..
se of the bee....... at
Angelica plant......... Miaduesvaleeives aban sdeveas « 490

ANIMALS. Domestic.
Horned or Neat.
Breeding and rearing ............000
Gestation, time of impregnation .
Castrating ... vanek Ss
Fattening ..

Names at different ages .....

GAZID Rites srescesdeessceces =a

Winter stall-feeding SuvedSsouenssesur Suedess 338
The Bull.

How to judge of .............0006

Ati¥e) vccvssessiasces

IOMOMR ah spt sviwiandsnedaveaddiont Wusateahin
Ayrshire, New Leicester ......... -....0+:+ 834
Holderness, Galloway, Sussex, ‘Alder-
ney, Suffolk, Kyloe ....... Wacestessy> eosee SOD
The Ox.
How to judge of......... Selvatuadatonbecnaass O22
Anatomy of........ ‘ ee - 828
INBELVG iisscosvedez-aous 325
Devon .. 2

Short-horned .. swace
PRCTOLOLA eves oaenec

PAGE
New Leicester ......... Daneai ens aswauensijaueKant Glew
Holderness, Galloway, Sussex, Alder-
ney, Suffolk, Kyloe ........-ssereeerseeeee BBD
The Cow.
How to judge of........ aacnnsers auNanaasns a. 324
IWAENVE cevassecavereose
Devon ..
Hereford . a a
Ayrshire, New Leicester ......... Soahakcan . 834
Holderness, Galloway, Sussex, Alder-
ney, Suffolk, Kyloe ............s000+ seas 83D
Dairy qualities Beeneenee + 335
Feeding, keeping in good. ‘condition,
TRL ETM encour cs gucauonsescrassdustanduduauisss 3

Grazing Cattle wesc sseen
Winter stall- feeding «. Cowen
Ascertaining the quality ‘of milk ..
Remarks on Devon cattle..
Diseases of Cattle ........-secssssesseesseseees OOF

Sheep.

Gain py Os veeevces-csseseseneessecsie paeeeae .. 839

Castrating, weaning, shearing ......... « 340

For the market, food, sheep in moun-
tainous sections, smearing ............. 342

Signs of good health, improvement of
breeds, OTA cs nese vse Spat ia cesasitace eo eey

Age, wool .. f

‘Tartar, New Leicester, ‘Dishley .. Susaotee

Lincolnshire, Teeswater, Devonshire,
Notts, Romney Marsh. Cotswold ....., 346

Cheviot, South- pee Black-faced or
Heath. . sesiacsde wa sa

Merit Olaccncerss/---- .. 348
Diseases Of Sheep ......02. seeccsees secencees + 367
Swine.
Breeding and rearing, treatment of
CaM ANd YOUNG «....0.5. ecscanaesepsessos « 3do
Castrating, weaning, treatment after

weaning, food, disposition of the car-
CASH. s0.< ete Ebates hen neeeimareo ie
Anatomy of.. cer

CUBITT rose cre tdenasest cacedecenssaes wee BOS
Berkshire .. sieceaasatae eesee BOD
Suffolk, W: vobura, § Siamese . . sdonve 385
BiGea hOB yesceves teceeeccuarsaevetcananienraeanuntenad
The Horse.

Rearing, breeding, weaning.. seeeeee 556
Castrating, training, and management

OE COMES esecc cote ha avs ccccusauasanccenaans . 857
Food, anatomy .. an
Arete cides <arsascane vcsocvans savencteateaes
Mexican, Canadian, Morgan, Gifford,

Goss. European ........--.:s0s00 eee cupeed OOM
Norman, Clydesdale, Suffolk ............. 362

(699)

500 INDEX.
PD ISCASER ceusaus snceunses sxnedsearsessapacciseaseeeiOOrt Table XII.—The proportion of inorga-
The Ass. nic substances contained in the re-
Rearing, ero ne training, ae: char- fuse of the most commonly cultivated
acteristics .. 5 cheronstoneeneocenancon, Bay esculents ......... .. 691
The Mule. Table XIII.—The proportion ‘of several
Rearing and breeding «.......seseereereeree BOD elementary substances contained in
The Goat. 100 parts of some of the most com-
Description, &e. ......... rerecne peeeeenemia - 363 monly cultivated esculents............ 692
WVANICLIOS Se eeencas seeesesanisncredseeetbencesnaesa Ot Table XIV.—The proportion of several
The Dog. elementary substances contained in
Rearing and breeding .. sesesecrersre OO the produce of one acre, planted with
Newfoundland............ <eresees BOD the esculents most cultivated as
SHGDHONOS penseeserecestvestieneataesaiae Fe 366 food for StOCK..:.:.00<ce0svser cosers seeeeeor OO
Drover, Setter, Terrier, Pointer . 367 | APPLE.
Diseases of animals .............0-00008 « B07 Propagation, soil. and situation ......... 250
Monthly Calendar of Operations .. 381 Monthly Calendar of Operations ...... . 313
Insects injurious to animals........ 636 Grafting, awe prunes training. 564
Animated oats ..... Hace esenee 487 Diseases ............06 .. 599
BATMIRE sys cniaascuneseaaseasseeees c . 210 Insects i injurious to. BrOcch
Annual flowers, culture of see 476 Summer Sorts.
Aunular budding ............ . 576 Varieties— American Summer Pear-
Antler, or grass moth ...... errors (eid) main, Benoni, Cole .........00.sesseseeeees 204
ADDI cesses cessesees paceeecrs Sheoncn eseeecee 646, 665 Early Harvest . 25k
Apiary. Early Red Margaret. Early Strawberry,
PABPECL Oficsce-sacnesscaaesvncertd Rexacunaeeenasced 419 Juneating Manomet Sweeting ....... 254
Location, shelter, trees ares 420 Red Astrachan ...... 2.000. ssceere cease 7 251
Water. shrubs, sun, flowers. 421 Red Quarrenden, Sapson, Spice Sweet,
Apoplexy in animals ............0... 367 Summer Speen y Summer Rose,
st in fowls..... 414 Tucker .. coe 55 5
APPENDIX. Williams’ Favorite ......«-
Tables, by the use of which a Farmer Fall Sorts.
may be assisted in his calculations. 683 IBOTG )s vaossactane\stinses(ssanssehdenesomhenitenaeeeetemecrita
Table I.—For reducing yards into acres, Belmont .. pcp 2h
roods, and perches..... ............ 684, 685 Bread and ‘Cheese, Barly Toe, Fair-
Table IJ. — Exhibiting the number of banks...... AB . 256
plants which may be raised on a Fall Pippin ........ 255
perch of land at different distances. 686 Fall Wine.. 256
Table I11.—Exhibiting the number of Fameuse.... 258
plants which may be raised on an Gilpiniceecaessts 256
acre of land at different distances... 686 Golden Ball ..... 258
Table IV.— Rotations practised in Golden Sweet ... . 256
Foun rea: eee . 686 Gravenstein ......s.-...eseee Poeereereeceen 245 i5)
Table V.—For determining ‘the weight Herefordshire Pearmain, H Hurlbut ..... 258
of cattle by measurement .:.........-+ Jersey Sweeting... ss.cccesvesessnacurteseec coe
Table VI.— Mixtures of grass seed re- Jewett’s Red . viene\ees/assieen cones 208
commended for pastur’ es, lawns, Leland Pippin, Lowell, ‘Lyman’ 8 Large
mowing-grounds, &c., on different Summer .. . 256
kinds of soils,and the quantity to be Lyscom, Magnolia... oe exinvamaaedsl ee
sown on each acre, together with the Mexico, Moses Wood, "Pomme Royel o- 256
weight per bushel of each kind of Porter .. 254
seed, &e., &c. . 688 Rambo, ‘Richardson, “Romanite, Sassa-
Table VII. "_ Exhibiting ‘the distance fras or Haskell Sweet, Seek-no-fur-
ordinarily travelled by a horse in ther, Summer Reuse Superb
ploughing one acre of Jand, together Sweet.. «dus aaibee soaleunissnlaemcanl naam gunmen sen
with the quantity of land worked Thompkins ... c
during aday 9 hours long, supposing Winthrop, Yellow Bellflower . sasicss ons eeeeeoO)
the horse to travel at the rate of 16 Winter and Spring Sorts.
and 18 miles per day respectively ... 689 American Golden Russet .. 261
Table VIII.—Live and dead weight of Paldwin..
cattle . . 689 Blue Pearmain .«....
Table IX. Showing how much ‘ma- Burlington Greening. staes
nure will be necessary for an acre of Danvers Winter Sw eeting, Detroit
ground, supposing the heaps to be Ksopus Spitzenberg .........
of certain sizes, and deposited at Fort Miami, Gloria Mundi
definite distances . +. 690 Golden Pippin .. maaee
Table X.—The results ‘of. observations Golden Reinette, Hollow Crown ‘Pear-
on the reproductive powers of domes- Main ...... ics) esansahhasentes ok
tic birds and animals.. “s -. 690 Hubbardston Nonsuch .. 258
Table XI.—The proportion ofinorganie SHONECY ccastsacsovacedesctaccer 260
substances contained in several of Jonathan, King. 261
the most sony cultivated escu- LG h esecraceeceee rer -oceke «+. 260
. TOMS scenes cecccrcavesgieveess soesarts 691) | Ladies’ Sweeting, Leicester | Sweeting,

INDEX.

Little Saas a Minister, Berets
fail ..

rere rere rr err err etreryy

Newton Pippin .. vee 209
Northern Spy, Norton’s. Melon, ‘Ola
Nonsuch ....... Goat ceasuautearsdudcurvesaneccneBaOls
Pecker .......... « 258
Peck’s Pleasant, ‘Prior’s. Red, “Raule’s
RE PRRLELAS ue Ga Mannan os wae noes vane deeasessiess 261
Rhode Island Greening......... 260

Rockrimmon .

seeeee aoe

Roxbury Russet ..

Steele’s Red Winter ..... . 258
Swaar, Tewksbury Winter Blush, Tol-
man Sweeting, Vandevere, Waxen... 261
Westfield Seek-no-further. ............... 258
Wood’s Greening.. Patacerenisasepaiss <sump,cGOL
Cider Sorts.
Camfield, Harrison, Hugh’s Virginia
Crab, Red Streak .....:..cccscsnccossosse «. 261
Crab Apples.
RRs TORTAIN au ceac\-sosed<sesuncaateuvverssessen GOL
Yellow Siberian ......... sunbacsvanuncnovastni - 262
Cider. s
HOW TO MARGE 260.200 scscascoccscees aoe agauned 262
Fermentation of the juice . wscee 262
Preparation of casks ..........++ esses 208
Fining and bottling, vinegar ...... seseeee 264
Apricot.
Propagation, soil, and situation ......... 264
Varieties — Breda, Black, Brussels aba 266
Early .. meee

Large Karly .. a

WSCA as coed) anak csin sas siesn

Red Masculine, Roman, Turkey, White
REET ER Get oaunonceeessnows'esad->sveneconcae> 265

Monthly Calendar of Operations ....... 313

Grafting, budding, pruning, a aca 564

MIIBGRSGR Ye aetcc on cposascacas pevetonaseeereaen DOS

Insects injurious tO .........000 seeeeeeeeseeee 690

APRIL.
Kitchen-garden calendar for ............. 217
WOM CAIC GAD cccsscsccnevesecesacae 314

Live-stock calendar ....... 2...
Floricultural calendar ...........
Arabian horses ..... .....
Arbors for gardens .....
Architecture — (See In lex of Rural Archi-

SCRUM G) avessavutassxscosscsonssiees Wee enesastassaacee 512
Army worm ....... bponsetes 67a
Artichoke, Jerusalem ..... 184
PAIRED GEOG cecscnrwoscscvsacenscee 501
PRP NER Tes seavaus ingienceccAuactes tescesine come 123
ASPARAGUS.
Varieties and culture ........ 185
Forcing 5
Beetle

Asphodel

Ass—reuring, breeding, wiege tags age, char-

Acteristics ....05......005 Bean ctresiaads OOS
Assorting hops . 198
Aster, China ....... 487
AB UMIE AED AOWIS ssnncrsccchscvasesisvasvecoscsosccsce S14
Avuaust.

Kitchen-calendar for ........c.cscssssecsrees 218
Fruit calendar .............. 315

Live-stock calendar ...... A
Floricultural calendar ...
Auricula........ Touuasavanaune
Autumn stock of bees .
Autumnal ac fecvesucsadsaserbsnantcsencereml STO

Aylesbury or English duck ...
Ayrshire cattle ..
AZalea ...cccecsccees

seeeneee

tot seeseenecceres 487, 489

B.
Bacon, TRADES Sese ps uisesseassouaswvesteaseny OUL
Balm .. antodenecunave 210
Balsamine.. Saareens - 491
Bankiva fowls + 388
Bantam fowls.... 391
Barbary fowls .. ses 392
Barberry, culture, ‘Common Red, Stoneless, 266

BARLEY.
Different Kids! ss. ccsccsasescuvesepve cutis since us

Kind of soil .. a ali
Preparing the ‘land, sowing, culture,
harvesting .......... 78
Threshing, dressing, uses mavddunasivevserans 79
Diseases and enemies ........ 79, 599
Insects injurious tO ........- ceseeeeseseeeeee 639
Barn. ;
Plan of, light and air, yrevenEae a de-
predations of vermin .......... « 527
Washington barn .. 528
FS WGMDATIN «nc chstszevcnaesebucousesebueneeusceh aes! O20,
Barn Fow.s.
Bankiva, Dunghill.. 388

Game, Dorking. Malay or ‘Chittagong, 389
Paduan or Jago, Crested, Hamburgh,
Dutch, es or “Everlaying,
Poland . seroheuacievepenecawarxwepedesse oO)
Spanish, Bantam ...... + 391
Dwarf or Creeper, Acaho, ‘Rumkin,

Frizzled, Silky, Russian or Siberian,
Bantian yi a) ivalcescerewscmn sacengasiapasteee 392
Ostrich or Cochin China ...............:06 893

Raising, breeding, number of hens for
a cock, qualities of a good cock

Selecting hens, sitting, hatching -
Fattening, caponizing, health ...........
DUIBORSOS con ccepiace voxwerhssunt teveak asees
Insects ee to.

Basil . paseo awake

Bassw ood tree ..

BASTARD SAFFRON.
ae Sus soil and climate, ipa 175

Uses .. ivawtsievevaesues SLU
BEAN.
Varieties and culture .............066+. sieve L6G!
Twining sorts
Beard’s hive... cee
Beauty of the night .. dev eus nes tecask ascend SOD
Bees.
Different classes, clone: maa 416
Drone, working... - 417
Structure ......... « 418
Position of the apiary, "aspect .. asad 419
DMRCREIOM rece dacsasen ses ccesanenewesacs . 420
Water, shrubs and iasieh sun. - 42
Tlouses .. p50 tas ane . 421
Diseases and enemies senxaniven Wecahusncovins ae

Hives and Bozes.

RRQUISIGOR..c-.n00cavenecicey cuente wer asvasnensevs Saal
Nat tihsacosesevecs aa 3 422
age ecavsc Cue etupieucess sansbnad 423
SERENE colons ceten tess 426
Size... 427

Huber’s leaf.
Simple and cheap a

702

Beard’s, Colton’s, Cutting’s, Wee
Miner’s . jane uke

Gilmore’s hives, house, and poxes .. cece 402
Obtaining Stock.

Spring stock. autumn stock .......-cee0e . 440

To secure good Hives ...........sseseeseeeeee 441
Swarming.

Time, indications ........ eacennses escbabeaccen 441

To prevent ......... 442
To secure one that hus settled 443
Effects of SWATMING ........ -.sssceeeseseees 443
To avoid, in the case of collateral
boxes ...... base (oes
Adaptedness ‘of ‘the different hives. evens 445
The Honey Harvest.

PiMe ANA INGE scesscsesesrans renoceceAcres 445
Fumigation. ........ 446
Tapping or Ariving .........:.0e00+ 447

First harvest. second harvest .
Examining and weighing ...
HLOMEY-COMD'.<scacen seesroneahacradens “
Duration of hives, food for bees .........
Management during Winter and Early
Spring.
Autumn and winter care, feeding, nar-
rowing the eutrance, and covering... 451
Dampness and ventilation, materials

for covering, spring care ........ 0... 452
How to Treat the Product cf the Honey
Harvest.
Removing the comb, obtaining and DEE
paring he WAR oka Ae 453
BEET.

Varieties and culture .............s.e000. 188

WOM Ge Pine inst -ailemacse cee acace 189
Beetles — (Also see Insects) .. are hs
Bell cranberry .............0s00 wee 270
Berkshire swine .. 33
Biennial flowers .. 368
Bilberry . a see Ole
Bird spider “fly «. saguaxeee «ss. 636
Fird’s-eye primrose ., atehs . 495
Blackley disease in animals .... 868
Black quarter in animals ....... .. see 808
Black water in animals .............00ccecoeesrere B08
BLACKBERRY.

PropataviOnis.cccsvet eevee sn0s tvacceaseecavere=s 266

Trailing, Hich, White, Double White

Flowering, Double Pink Flowering, 267
Black-faced or heath SHOGWT..ccsecnsspduceaceees 347
Buast.

Description, different kinds ......... sevee, 599
BIAS DINE HLONER sccccc ccs cssicsahpes dear asches Cons ee anon:
Bucur.

Description, different kinds .. . 599

Biood joint felon ais ai blood ‘striking
disease ....... ssasaaer) masa sserien
Bloody flux in fowls .

Blueberry \s..scesyacctsnan
Boggy lands. draining .
Box-spavin disease .........
Boiling food for animals....
Bone-spavin disease .......
BSOVECO ccc vescpecsese cs
OKECOlE scwcotensuctaveceneecienean

Borer insect — (See Insects) .........cs000
Bort.
Horese\..scccssu.
Fundament..
Red, sheep ...
TBOtER os cccssesnecs
Botys.

INDEX.

Bowels, inflammation of, in =e Secsases (GOO)
Box plant ... stseeeeseseeeeee 488, 501, 503
Boxes for bees. —(See Bees.)

Brain. inflammation of, in animals .......... 8369

Breaking and dressing hemp ...........022.-.. 189
BREEDING AND REARING.
Neaticattlen tes. pitenccs sesversantulvastonter qemehouil
Sheep ......... . 339
Swine 349
Horses ....... 356
Barn fowls . seven OO4
JABS) sseacvasots nde 362
Mule, goat .. 363
Dog .. 364
Breeds of animals and fowls. '— (See each
kind under its see
Brier, sweet .. <es'ccauen en's nacitenges daceeee teres

Brittleness of hoof...
SPOCCOMT russe tone enidemsanisaue steeeeee
Broken knees, broken wind

Bronchitis in animals ......
BROOM-CORN.
Varieties, method of planting reoeeoainccur 133
Culture, harvesting, scraping .... 134
Uses .. Fi: aoeeh avasenees 1385
Brown-w ater disease . A . 868
Bruises in animals . 375
“ * fowls ..... « 415
Buoekthortaeccscicecssnecce n cuseselenssusldsuueiienaesneen aie
BuckWHEAtT.
Description, soils ........ Save uoenaa keenest ennneten
Culture .. ae 94
Harvesting, uses . . 9
Diseasesis. sssvesccanececse 599
Insects injurious tO ........s0000 cecsaseverse GOD
BupDINnG.

Uses ...... 000

Performing ‘the ‘operation .. oe

Transmitting scions, wax for budding,
shield budding ....... « 574

Shield budding ‘without a a “bud. or eye,
circular shield budding ...........

Flute budding, annular budding, after-

Buffalo berry .....
Bugs — (Also see Tnsects)...
Buildings. farm and rural...
BU) DS, (CUIEUTE Vere. .nascnersaean
BULL.
Breeding and rearing: anti
Castrating. ...5<. 20.
Fattening ..
Age... ~
Names. at ‘different ages
Varieties — Native ..
Devon .......
Short-horned ..
Ayrshire. New Leicester . tee eee en
Holderness Galloway, Sussex, Alder-
ney, Suffolk, Kyloe ......ss0seeseseeeveess OOD
Diseases.
Monthly Calendar of Operate
Insects injurious to..

bate, CAG

Serre rrnry

ween Oly

ste nw eee tensors

Burning and paring SOi]8 see: oad svacna san punt Glee
Bushes. — (See Shrubs and Trees.)
BUTTER.

General remarks, cream .....ssscesesereeee 22D

Clotted-cream ..........0.sse00 ae

Whole-milk, churning

Washing, salting ............ eadeseapeeenstceny oo
Butterflies, destructive —(See Insects.)
Butternut.......c.ccoccrssccsescccsscssccesccauarcsese GLO

INDEX.

Cc.
CaBBAGE.
Varieties and culture .........sse00seeee8 189
To keep ... 190

Diseases ...
BN acesas
Butterfly....
Moth ........

a
Cacalia plant ....

Cactus opuntia ..........004. 559

Cactus tuna .............+. Sueabn ab axbene@ueinn cedesns 559

CALENDAR OF MONTHLY OPERATIONS.
Kitchen-garden .......c.sccccssecsvesseeeeeee 216

Fruit
Live-stock .......
Floricultural ...
CALVES.
Rearing .....
Fattening ..
Diseases ......
(See Cattle. Ne

@alycanthus plant: .....0--ccns coe sscsssoascccccssee, DOL
Camomile ..........0+
Canadian horses Waavedeot cugsnaydemsrescads tcunaciwa, GOL
CANKER.

ME GTEC) TOOL ove cceccass casnavadcaus ces evenen 70

DOg8’ EATS ...00. ssc00- soccer seceses: even eeee

In ‘vezetation—deseription, Origin:

Remedy .. efmuaeVasenensna ces eats OL

Canker-worm .. 669
Canteleup melon ...... aa 2s4
Canterbury bell plant .... 488
Caper tree...... micareemucsts 490
CAPONIZING.

Mode of uernrenne the SPs
Wit enV nde rece tutus ae aisuadniaas \aebs-loawsnswuasncesuesy
@ardoon...... <..-3. +...
Carnation plant .
Carolina syringa plant ..
OSTrOG is... 2005

“« moth.. 648
Casting ....... po WAL
Cassia plant .. Rte epee neceew Nicaaddinccanseneaner ese aoO
CASTOR-OIL PLANT.

RISE UIOMD exec naannde)lawasnecsaocsnaysaaub esas Peatsal
ice ai soil, 1, eulture, POCO, the
RUPeeee paren nie eaias aluihs sicsnJesdanueayseseusca gl Oe
CASTRATING.
MPM DCCL ca padusessuecevessiivicericccissexassagyOlO
Sheep 340
Swine...... 840
Horses .. 357
RUA ata aicences tsehacldpwisPaccehn wxnes.dudeesass 396

Catalpa plant..
Catarrh in animals...
Catarrhal fever in animals -.

edie Sundientannec en
Caterpillars, destructive—(S ‘ee Insects.)
Carrie.
Horned or Neat.
Breeding and rearing ......... Retatoresen ctr

Gestation, time of MOREAEENCO » wee O18

Sethe souscvand necusadadedasacnai dias 319
Fattening .. $21
REO ax eb cssereaccasheebonentestre 824
Names of, at different ages .. 825
GAP AZANID, se ccccees' sencosputssesenpee snerent Ol

Winter stall-feeding ........... ioe tereere BOS
The Bull.

How t0. Judge Of .crccccoscssscsesscscssossvers, G2

703

INGO aisvesasdiccvadeeensedesnentecebseeoacessass O20
Davo acateswasvercevecey atk wwe 328
Ayrshire, New Leicester .. 834
Holderness, Galloway, Susser, Alder-

ney, Suffolk, Kyloe .. saee> pinegyehons
The Cow.

How to judge of .........ssceeee gateea ta soos O24
Native..... upeateuaneras janteran a0
Devon ........ 328
Hereford. iscer ccaresesciectenes 332
Ayrshire, New Leicester .............c0e00 334
Holderness. Galloway, Sussex, Alder-

ney, Suffolk, Kyle cicse.e:<cecccsees- eee cn 335
Daity qualitiegis<.s..s:. cscscsconsnsceceancers . 33:
Feeding, keeping in good condition,

Mil iri gt rss. sev ctecdes savesuearksceees woe
Ascertaining the quality of milk ....... 837
Remarks on Devon breed ........... a 829
Diseases of cattle ......... 0... 367

Barta, chow to construct, models, &c... 527
Insects injurious to .........00. 000 Daeaee . 636
CawliHower Acer ssceusensaxeeces 191
Melony eeassvexeree . 192
Channels, water ............ 63
Cheap and simple hive ...... ...ecs sscccrssececeee 429
CHEESE.
Presses ....... aucinoee . 220, 23
Different modes ‘of. preparing Tennet «- 231
Whole-milk, drying ........ccccceeeees medeuse 235
Store-room, green-whey .........2..seeeeres 236
Mode of making celebrated kinds —
GHesbire cies 2ctccnns. ; ee
Gloucester.. . 241
Stilton ...... . 243
Dunlop .. » 244
Cream, new . % . 247
AEM GSAM: <seess cecsa5 easace 248

Potato, freen OF SAGE ..eccccceccrceccsreveree 24D
(See Dairy.)

Chemistry, acquaintance with ......... 23

Chermes, apple and pear ........ ccssseeseeeeese 664

CHERRY,
Propagation, soil, situation ......... sconce, 2OT
Varieties — American Amber . 269
Ansell’s Fine Black ............... 267
Belle de es: ade snake 70
Bigarreau. 268
Black Caroon . 267
Black Circassian, Black Eagle. 269
Black Heart, Black Russian .. 267
Black Tartarean . rece 269
Misbianen t’s Early B Black .. 267
Doctor.. i : 70
Downer’: 8 : Late - 269
Downton........ 27
Karly Amber... . 269
Early Duke.. 268
Early White Heart . 269
Elliott’s Favorite ..... 20
Elton. ;

Hyde's Seedling 2
June: Duke) s:c:tenaker.svcusswrcvertesmapees
Kentish. Knight’s Early Black, Man-

ning’s Mottled <....000» oo madaeeeeead sooguen ee
IVE ALY OTL Ginn sanries,oxconcap sen anneeer --. 268
Morello, Napoleon Bigarreau . ‘ cw 200

New Honey ....0c.esersserserevecececesecsovese ZOD

"04 INDEX.
New May Duke ............ coves 207 | COlG-fraMG...o-cescncstsascoses easersceshesneursie semen yen
Ox-heart, Ronald’s Black Heart .. sasteeovel -209)), COlicinarimias'..:-f..-cerse-sancensccdeceeeeeeeeee . 371
Spanish Black Heart.. wee. 267 | Colors. arrangement of, in n flower-gardens, 473
White paar White “Partarean, Colton’s hive saveveecces ob sscnnnaee sssunsaumeemeniiene
Yellow Spanish ..........secessesssesereeee 268 | COLTS.
Wild; Cherry =<. --ase=e..2>0 . 270 Training and managinG .......0.secsecceeee GOT
Choke Cherry . 270 (See Horse.)
Monthly Calendar of Operations ....... 313 | Columbine plant .......0+.:cssesseuessseeeeeeesrene O89

Grafting, budding. ppeuIBE , training.. 564

Diseases. ...... ies ar ))
Insects injurious to. we 690
Clerval secs. wcnacatengeses fe All
Cheshire cheese . 237
Chestnut .......... . 310
@heviotisheeps, cvsssccesscsecsesecsurosaneaneewavar 347
Chickens, fattening — (See Fowls) ............ 396
CUND AS WANG ener een stab cseneesusesecsececadeceneneces 352
China aster plant. ee eon
Chinese goose ....... pewgesitact . 401
Chinese monthly rose. Mri cManalaceesekc seuteertns 496
CHINESE SUGAR-CANE.
DESCLIPPIOMs reacascspeseceusaesaessesee aaeecis yO)
Soil and climate, culture .....-......+..++ 111
Uses as a fodder plant, curing the fod-
der, and saving the seed ............2++ UTZ
Making sugar ............0:e00- . 113

Alcohol, vinegar . ee

Chittagong fowls....... .. 389
[1G Tih teers harcore « 192
Choke cherry............ .» 210
Choking of animals ...... a eli
Chrysanthemum plant. Rvessete ao
Ola gabe Bee er ans en esenapaddeaiater entice 222, 228
CHURNS.

Thermometer .. Seuslousheaieas cuca . 222

. 223

Kendall’s cylindrical .. =
. 224

Gault’s, Tillinghast’s

CTIA WOLHI, cesacsrsseconsey=seneesayeescasuanceseen (OX,
Ciper.
How, to: make) <..22..ssasescoxcecrssee npaeOCtLos 262
Fermentation of the juice ... ove 202
Preparation of casks ..........- .. 263
Fining and bottling .... ve 264
SWAG PAN oc vwecisecesaseconssieecasscezans-cecnenes 264

CrpeR APPLES.
I{arrison, Camfield, en Virginia
Crab, Ked Streak .. sna aco peeccess ZANL
Classification of soils .. ef

Clayey soils, subsoil .. 25
eS draining .. Uassalsaens 61
Clearing lands ..... neodaaccosenh conto 27,29
COIR ee ese ch acer a cocee endo oc nabancsonbenscan 42
Cleft grafting 569
Clematis, or virgin’s bower .. 489
Clethra plant ..........0.-06 asisye 489
Click beetle ...... - 640
Close pry sei 579
Clotted cream . 227
Clover .. Es 84
Varieties ‘and ‘culture... 147
Diseases ........ 599
Insects i inj urious ‘to. neesecess 675
Cluster Pine.. 501, 503
Clydesdale horses Be wwe O62
Cochin-China fowls.... eoospecoccucen Gi2k:
Cock. varieties, ko (See Fowls.)
Cockchaffer, field .. cciecteceeen cagecbotoancces fet
Cockspur plant..... i .. 559
Cock’s spur..... Ae!
Cocoons ...... +++ 459

Codling moth ..........

Coiza.
Description and USC .......0eseseeseee erences 177
Soil. sowing the seed of winter cola,

culture, gathering the crop

Common black currant peswenee Breathe:
Common Box .......+-seeeee
Common goose........
Common Primrose....... eras :
Common red barberry ....... «. avnoncce cectoeane OD)
CoMPOSITION OF SOILS.
Clayey, sandy, gravelly, Peay eres wens Oe
Loam .. 4 - 25
Composts, forming . Heseeascaeoaee 53
Construction of the plough .. 36
Consumption in fowls .......... . 414
& in plants.... . 604
Contortion in plants. ..... . 4
Contracted foot in animals . pe ey iil
Convolvulus plant.......-. .. 589
Copper-colored weevil -» 658
Coriander ........ percsaccesies-sossua=esesenaattaeereaae 211
Corn.
Varieties of . Seaeve) SOE
Preparation of land for: planting, season
for ploughing ....... Pevpe skis
Planting, MANMUTING.............eceeseeeeee 87
Number of grains to the hill, depth of
plonghing) tillace’.........sessscsseeep se . 88
Thinning and suckering Se 90
Harvesting 2:s..5-:.ceserserieus Pee S
PYGKET VIN GS 02. dcnseissces Jens eescaneea eee nok
Varieties and culture for the table...... 192
Diseases and enemies .......0.sscce0ee+ . 92, 699
Insects injurious to .. ceorsece 639
Corn-salad............-00s00+ 000 193
Corns in fowls.......... 414
Costiveness in fowls .. aa we 415
Cottages and farm- -dwellings caentan saievduriens (0 Dey
Corron PLANT.
Description, varieties... 116
Soil, culture..........+ dnd 117
Manures, picking ........ 119
Whipping, ginning... . 120
Packing, uses ....... meen 2b
Diseases .......6 ace 633
Insects injurious to. we 61D
Couch in animals ..... Bremcy
Coverings for flowers......... - 466
Cow.
Breeding and rearing ...-..seere ceeeeeeree SLT
Gestation, time of impregnation . Peer co 3)
Fattening .. eaeuee 321
Age, how to judge ace 324
Names at different ages «. se O29
Varieties — Native ...... . 325
TD YEN AO) 2) Baer noeecnnon] . 328
Short- horned .. . Bal
Hereford: is-sccsa-cever ol ssesnes « 332
Ayrshire, New Leicester .. . 334
Holderness Galloway, Sussex, “Alder-
ney, Suffolk, Kyloe ... sus eeesesse OOD

Dairy qualities Of .cesscicccssens ea

INDEX.

Feeding, keeping in good condition,

TESPHADI es icawed tecncocsetnccuvegssstenenn as cA 336
Ascertaining the quality of milk . 337
Diseases of cows . - w. 869

Monthly Calendar of Operations .. ene e OL

Insects injurious to .. pacer sferceaten OGG
CraB APPLES. .

Red Siberian ........ macavertsrearsctred=nnnso red hoOL

Yellow Siberian ... ww. 262

Cranberry, culture . a. 270

SE to keep. oes 272
Cranjero .........0. Sashassnasatasvisaaas satless'saceansey S00)
Cream.

RUMEN cawactisdepscues cnddenne Lickstcccscedesansens 220:
Clotted ... eve 220
Cheese ...... coe 247
Creeper fowls .. wee 892
NeReRMaiesac cccuer se .. 193

MOE DIDI pccpitaccsdh.cyesastincures dele . 371
Cricket, mole — (See aac es . 645
Crocus plant .. oe orecenstern ees receaceds-pcrs te)
Crops.
RREIIORUNE Ol sececscossceschuvscrscasicts 69
ARNO Liter ca- oe sUakar stad suv cases \ececssotts 66
(See each plant, under its head; also
Soils.)
Cross-ploughing ........... Panteenaeneceea sudvesesste AS
CucuMBER.
Varieties and culture.........000 sss 193
Forcing, enemies.... monetee ¢

Cud, loss of... oe
Cultivation, rendering ‘soils fit for.......-....
Culture of plants, &.— (See each kind
under its head.)

Cupid’s car, or monk’s-hood plant............
BTU IIGIBESRD ros oe sos o> cosesevceeveeescess
Curculio—(See pneedia) poeaeeenes
GSES Gece cuss ssesascessve
MMAR GUIBGARON coscesieesesricecesecoucns eascveses

CURRANT.
Propagation ..... debvaaveess Ewayapuarccssce tnsees 273
Soil, situation ......... snanoecnva DUE

Varieties — Black ‘Naples, Champagne,
Common Black, Knight’s Karly Red,
May’s Victoria, Morgan’s Red, Mor-
gan’s White, Red Dutch, Red Grape,
Reeve’s White, Striped-fruited, White
Crystal, White Dutch, White Leg-
ersirannnene thtaraetccitasconen aces spacueck cactes . 274

Monthly Calendar of Operations teneeneL ok

Grafting, budding, pruning, training. 564

MAIR PABCR adevavcconnc decaswon cubs wurieriaceevarecas 599

Insects injurious to.. . 650

Cutting and harvesting — (See each plant,
under its head.)

Cutting’s hive.......... aetuih cetvesnthcdsasemnersecn GOL

CYPLEES tLCO's.scevcccssrsvescse-covseccecscescsscssens BOL
D.
WEBI wencnss\scxsevasolevsslecesenapears ents cenésscess7 DEO
Darry.
Implements.
General remarks, different kinds of
Cheese-Presses .........cscesscceven sees Manse) COL
Thermometer churn .......... 222
Kendall’s cylindrical churn . 223

Gault’s churn, Tillinghast’s beg woos 2d

Cleanliness in dairying.. ivevcnveddstatexcas) 222
Milk.

PIANAPGICTIG veccttvenccssccnssccnstesiasessehes, Zak

705
Butter.
General remarks, cream butter ... 225
Clotted) cream’. ......26..:%0ccaecenas . 227
Whole-milk butter, ciaaiiee «. 228
Washing, salting........... Reoree ieevennctee 230
Cheese.

General remarks, different modes of
preparing and treating rennet ....... 231

Whole-milk, drying .......... wae

The store-room, green-whey

Cheshire ...........

Gloucester..........0

Stilton......

Dunlop .. 244
Skim-milk, ba iit new .. - 247
Parmesan . Sehrbos-osnc + 248
Potato, green ‘or sage . scans « 249
Dairy-house.
General remarks, different apartments,
site . ae Re ehaescavaacee Oa

Temperature, arrangement .. . 523
Store-loft or upper rooms, model of a

craniete ames iievine sutimanctsarenettatans 524
Daisy .. aaipearocreton 590
Dandelion. Se Oe PLO le
IREG TOL. sacscs secs ovudsucsuesccreenccs sen ceee 641, 642
DECEMBER.
Kitchen-calendar for .........ssccssesecerees 219
Fruit calendar ........... Rapp CLG
Live-stock calendar ...... » 383

Floricultural calendar .. ss
-. 484

Decorations for the garden

Definitions of words, technical and peculiar, 693

Devon animals — bull ..,.........ccsseeseseeceeser 326
Se OSeteoarascesteseeese - 827
eo COW 328
“working, fattening, “and various

QuUATIIOS Of 55 coi sedscostecsesecepee snes 329
Diabetes in animals ....
Diarrhea in calves...

si SEOTOW IG csccecePeeaeseae . 414
ee “ other animals .. . 371
a6 SOU DORR ccclecssijdcnconcs «. 454
Dibbling wheat ... Sean Le
LOT ee eresehen och cot ence Mee pee’ 5 |
Directions for ploughing ... = 38
DIGDUGGIN GE vecnsens coscsosesese «- 583
DISEASES.
Of Animals.
Albscess-Apoplexy s0ccccs-csconcsonesesscos 369
Black Leg, Black Quarter, Black Water,
Blood Joint Felon, Blood Striking... 368
Bog Spavin, Botts.Bowel Inflammation 869
Brittleness of Hoof, Broken Knees,
Broken Wind, Bronchitis. .. « 370
IBVOW De WAtelsercscccces scuceruos ‘ 568
ISTYNISGR pc cctne asedecn ouvossess Gus cssivecceneds 375
Canker in Horses’ Feet, Canker. in
Dogs’ Kars, Capped Hock, Catarrh... 370
Catarrhal Fever, bomasa Colic, Con-
tracted Feet.. Se | eanatan CANE
Costiveness... . 870
Cough, Crib-biting, Cud, Toss “of, f Curb, 371
Diabetes .. deaaeaie se . 880
DIPETHOR ci cha ckece teases hovns any ontacae rere . 371
Distemper, Distention of the Rumen
or Grain Sick .. Seopea vedinpsoee . 372
Dunt.. . 880

Dy sentery or Scouring Rot, ‘Epilepsy
or Fits, Eye Inflammation, Eye
Weakness, Farcy..........+. sveweusceccheshuraa

106

Feet Inflammation, Fever, Fistulous
Withers, Flooding, Fly, Foot Dis-
ease, Foot Rot, Foul Foot....... aeaney B7¢

Frenzy... pweres

Garget, Glanders..

Gleet

Gogeles. or Giddy. nf

Grain Sick...... SrpanccercserdeA two data secee

Grease, Griping, Grogginess, Heart In-
flammation, Healing Dogs’ Ears,
Hide Bounds. c.cccnccs <== abe aractste 374

Hoof Brittleness.. :

Hoove, Hy drocephalus.

Inflammation of Bowels, dittocf Brain 369

ee of Hektor vane ww OT

ce of Kidneys 375

Ke of Liver..... 376

J: of Lungs . 378

& of Womb. 381

Enflammiatory: Evils... c1ss<<ccaccoscessanes 368

PrAUeN Za... Ae rsckese wcctens eeoacceusteessaues 370
Jaundice or Yellows, Joint Felon or
Rheumatism, Kicks and other

Bruises, Kidney Inflanimation...... 376

Lameness of Shoulder, Lampas, Lice,
Liver Inflammation, Locked Jaw.... 376

MORE OMG Ud accnssscetecrsrerivseneneeaeecsceng 371
WiOUOE Di avosssieseeens Se sasasess recmresancaetenes 369
Mallenders and Sallenders..... . « 316
Mange, Megrims, Miscarriage............ 377

Nasal Gleet. Navel Ill, Palsy, Pneu-
monia or Inflammation of Lungs,

ROISGHSS. cocanscesescoccesssesenascetareesteaee
Poll Evil..
Pumiced F eet...
Quarter Evil, Quarter. lll, ‘Red Water. 368
Ring Bone, Kheumatism, Roaring,

Rot, Round-bone Sprain, Saddle-

EET ete seccucon cee ce nomneLenieacounsssaooann SA)
MORLENCETH:t i cacseceicSuretswenencsceenccee rots 376
Scab, Scour... 379
Shoulder Lameness. . 376
Sit-fasts... af 379
Sore eats, ‘Splint... a 380
Sprain of Round- bone. ae 379
Spavin Bog, Spavin Bone. sees 369
Staggers or Apoplexy........-.2:sececeeeeeee BOS
Staling, Stifle Lameness, Strangles,

Surfeit, Swelled Legs, Thick Wind,

PR OVOUP NO Nienc pensecerewase enAcroaaainanes 380
EDVUSH: eens ceases . 313
Ticks ..... 380

Tread ..
Turnsick ..

INDEX.

Molting, Pip.... woes 412

(ROU sr cseecasks . 413
Ulcers... ...... sai susose saeheeeesaneesaeeneeat
Of Plants, Tr ees, “ete,
Blight or blast,—description, different
) siete (eat rotteecun eerce shea eqns 599
Canker or caries, — description. 600
Oriciny...:..- ASC cERCR ALE Arie n= an 601
Remedy..... 603
Consumption 604
Contortion... 604
Dropsy 604
Ergot......... 604
Honey-dew . 605
Gr ierereesecasraceseacwcnnnen ee cesesveceers enqnsl OO
Mildew.
Use of the term, nature.........

Growth and phenomena...
Provocatives as peers and correct-

PCE Morereceeaceo-e i oeccncrcseoccen oacecce se 610
Potato-rot.
Description....... acs'aas ouanenceunencaMieblcey
Causes ...... wee 615
Remedies... nae want Oz
Smut.
Description, causes, and phenomena... 625
PLeVentives....ac: cases: esiacesensuaedeegenaea nine
Cotton Rot.
Description, Catise........sesessssesececceeees OOD
Cotton Rust.
Description, Cavse........ccssesereeseer veces GOL
Cotton Blight.
Description, Cause....... sss sehas)teseswencultia
Sore-Shin.
Description, Cause. .....s0-.ssceassscesensees OOF
(See also each plant, under its head.)
Dishley sheep...........-.sseosees sis db caussdeceaanamOee

Distemper in animals...
Distention of rumen......
Dog.
Rearing, breeding.......
Newfoundland....
Shepherd’s. E
Drover’s, Setter, Terrier, Pointer, dis-
eases.. Sho eee care
Domestic Fowls... ss
(See each kind, “under its head.)
Domestic or farm animals (see Animals).
Dorking fowls.......... 389
Double ‘white flowering Blackberry, double
pink flowering Go.......00. .sccsssesrone apuwand °
Double Feverfew plant .....
Double flowering Almond..
Double flowering Cherry...

seen erences weeeees

Ulcers, War les, Warts. 381 | Double flowering Peach.........cceceesecessseeee 494
Water in the Head....... s+. 870 | DRAINING.
(Withers Wistw lai sceccecsesticeeses -eaestoeriens 373 Causes of wetness in lands....... .. 56
Womb Inflammation, W orms, Wounds. 381 Boggy lands, and the true line of ‘the
BViellOnystcsiessnesnanacsecssecarstiencessesvaree 375 Beet Vf
Of Bees. Drains in peat lands. - 59
Diarrhea, Dysentery. .....00cesesccnsee serene 454 Hard soils, direction of drains. 5 . 60
Attacks Dy Vermiti.......c0r cesses encaees ADD Clay lands . ae Ganenaeauitnel « 46k
Of Fouls. Varieties of drains... - 62
Apoplexy, Asthma.........0.. wees ero 414 Drainage of farmery...... «+. O49
Bloody Flux, Bruises.. --- 415 | Dressing barley............+00 - 79
Consumption, Corns... 414 | Drone-bee ........... . 417
COstiveness....cesseeeee 415 | Dropsy in animals.. - 872
Diarrhea, Fever. weer 414 a plants.... . 604
WMACEUTEN sere eee . 415 | Drover’s dog....... persis
Gout, Indigestion, << cccsin-.cn:s.sansescosens 414 | Drying hops...... sesecea, LOT
Loss of Feathers...... scsevoose SLO & cheese..... sarecese 235

INDEX. 107
Duck. Herefordshire Meira Hurlbut.. ... 258
Rouen eu weaiee enSyieuy Dersey SWeetingsr.vececcrcescrccesssccsvvecses LOG
WV DIEB ssccvsnccss Wauduvececcsdsenncs 07 Jewett?s REd..ceccceeseeees 258
Muscovy..... Pee sce oy Leland Pippin, Lowell, Lyman’ 3 Large
The duck-pond, food PMUREAIDOE sieeve an evdedewcee 256
Hatching and care of ducklings........ Lyscom, Magnolia, tes . 258
(OM EROTILID cac.ctacdienceervaddosose-aawauyeteces Mexico, Moses Wood, Pomme Royal. +. 256
Pairing and laying, eggs, diseases....., 412 Porter ....... «as wovisco- DOE
BUN BUA QW Saivead asieds taddcevedesceeddesbowads oe 388 Rambo, Richardson, Romanite, "Sassa-
Dunlop cheese : we fras or Haskell Sweet, Seek-no-fur-
GTS pin Gua MAls 00.3520 esccsce neh cock ther, Summer Belifiower, Superb
Durham or short-horned cattle. hetuawedwens é Sweet... ireidees eget
Duitebsfowlaisccss: wccccccssesce 390 Thompkins... . 258
Dwarf or creeper fowls. 392 Winthrop, Yellow Bellflower... . 256
Dwarf basil plant............... 490 | Fallowing, uses, different kinds..... - 44
Dwellings and cottages, rural....... 512 « benefit of, rules for..... - 45
Dysentery in animals..............5 . 372 | Fan training.......0s.ccesescasceeoees .. 594
DBCS feoccsceecdeucdccvescodecescecess 404 | Marcy In Animals:.c..c.c. 8372
Farm or domestic animals (ee Animals
E and Cattle)... iantesere aesccenscs ‘GLiy)
° FATreNnInG ANIMALS.
Earths (see Soils). CALVEEs eva tyese0 te sautlvocusesseaccsancenetrarcaseneral,
IRGHI WEB Aeiddael once ectsuetGucstsvaccddeteuevstvs svevees OTL Gat. cc.0ts0.s . B21
Egg-plant.............. awuatderewavesevestavedsetedvae LOO. Devon cattle...... .. 330
Higgs (see Fowls), Barn fowls..... . 896
Pea ER PRES fishers oe ve atseat ates eyeesaoe! descavcadacaraes) DOL abt aa . 400
Emory’s thorn... 561 Geese.... .. 405
PRINEMUMG piecsh ents oacusineosat'sratesa 195 Ducks... : + 411
English or Aylesbury duck.. | 407 | Feathers, loss of... ssa cunecevenccecen acs ceecvnecy, S15)
Enriching garden soils.......... «.. 466 | Fepruary.
Epilepsy in animals....... Devecan Ne Kitchen-garden calendar for....... seseere (20
MPeOtsdeenccdicdsatsaseese 81, 604 Fruit: calendar... .cccscesscosee css cescesssocce, GLE
SHRP AMNGE=GLROH Gs ce sac gancdscassacecesunavoses'tesseus . 590 Live-stock calendar.... “f sesees, OOD
European ae ME ok ccc 501, 504 Floricultural calendar... ....scs0sssceeees 507
European horses, — Clydesdale, Suffolk, FEEDING.
Norman .. .... ...20 Gescetsscteieack ean, 802 DDBiNY COW Sicnssiuatcabes cciwescutamierehte mente OOO
Evergreen Cypress......... Basddbisedenceaee * ‘bOl, 505 Swine... 850
_ EVERGREENS. Turkeys... - 400
American Silver Fir.......:......c00 wsscees . 504 Geese........ - 402
“ White Spruce........ . 504 DCE Siivesccauncsceu ves tat fecscnesncecsseveoserssh 408
URE ioyan se paktelessesdasexeeente + 503 Bees... «000 : 450, 451
Cluster Pine........ 503 | Feet, inflammation ‘of i in n animals. seaae 373
European Silver Fir.. 504] “ various diseases of.. 373
Evergreen Cypress... 505 Ls ga sa a 585
Hemlock,Spruce Fir.. . 506 | Fences .. 553
MS YOHIPING consesessaxcaxtsneesssveuee 504 | Fennel..... casas) oes
Magnolix grandiflora. : 503 | Fever in the horse... 373
Norway Spruce Fir.... . 506 “© fowls... 414
Scotch Pine.........5. . 504 “ catarrhal . 871
Everlasting pea.... seahectve . 494 | Fig... 310
Every-day or ever-laying fowls.. 890 Figure. ‘of 8 moth 653
Excrements, various kinds of... 50 | Filbert... av'ven ess agen
Extirpating shrubs... Pa 29 | Fir- trees. . 501
Extraction of stumps and trees ...... . 81 | Fistulous ‘Withers. ae
Eyes, inflamed and weak, in animals........ 372 Hits in animals...... o cerecnctaccssesses OTA
LAX.
F Varieties, soils........-..... nepcare - 140
: Culture, gathering, TInpHAS Na 141
Fading beauty, or morning bride plant.... 490 Watering, uses...... 2... 00 142
FA. APPLes. Diseases.. alate ecscccsece O99
Varieties, — Bars..........0.ssseeessesesseeees 256 | Fleas, destructive (see Insects)
Belmont Flies, destructive (see Insects).
Bread and ery 2 a Fair- Flooding in animals... : aa duaess ORE
banks... bemie FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETO.
Fall Pippin. A Flowers.
Fall Wine General remarks, friability of soil...... 465
Fameuse.. Enrichings. coverings, etc........ 202... 466
Gilpin:..;........ Plan of garden.......-. shaaaatas ve 467
Golden Ball Planting... 2 so 460
Golden Sweet.... Autumnal flowers....... . see 476
GFA VODSLAUN sscicniehaveracnsnsasevesvonscacss Laying out the garden.........s00sereeee00 470

708 INDEX.
WATIOMS DS LtELDS:pstaccsespccceroastctbeen enn ht) Mock Orange)...0.2-:essancsssenasers scwageuse OO
Arrangement of colors... 473 Musk Geranium, “Myrtle, “Narcissus,
ragranit fOW CLS cencccseecn-as scene uessaees 74 Na@Sturbitint s.cncsso-cncespevniesecnneseeeeeee 493
Cultivating bulbs .......... ....... 474 lend ersines cases sscescusees--ceseenenoeaae seer 494

Reserved garden spot .
Culture of annuals, hardy

Half-hardy, tender ..

PeTenN NS ios esn-ar occ wack. 478
Biennials, the hot-bed ... 479
Green-house plants......... 480
@oldiframe!ieccneurss.con0 481
Winter management... 482
Repotting ...... Daven povanidescee cepa 483
Garden decorations — arbors .. 484
Sats cenccsenccencseeceeaaantetataectice . 485

Vases, fountains, Hower sends avia-
ries, sun-dials ......... ae
Diseases of flower-plants ..
Insects injurious to.
Description of Standard Varieties.

Acacia.. «-eoeeee 496
Almond “(double “flowering). “Althea
Frutex, Amaranthus T ricolor, Amer-
ican Haneyeuckls, Animated Oats... 487
Asphodel .. - 492
Aster (China), Auricula, 4 “Azalea. Nudi-
flora . 487
Balsamine .. 491
Beauty of the Night .. eeeae 489
Box, Brier (Sweet) ...... 488
Cacalia .. oo « 496
( anterbury Bell. 488
Caper tree.. « 490
Carnation. Cassia. Marylandica .. etnenes 488

Catalpa. Cherry eas flowering) ....
China Aster .. che
Chinese Monthly Rose «. spec eestor
Chrysanthemum, Clematis ¢ or r Vi irgin’ 8
Bower, Clethra, Columbine Con-
volvulus, Corchorus Japonicus, Cro-
cus, puns cr or Monk’s Hood,
Dahlia... chrcpeperee eacrherbe tcoororr he)
Daisy .. Pee
Double Feverfew.. peetekstan
Double flowering Almond .
Double flowering Cherry ..

Double flowering Peach .. . 494

Dwarf Basil. Eupatorium, (Blue), Eu-
Phorbia Lathyris .............05 cscs eeees 490

Everlasting Pea.. 494

Fading Beauty or Morning Bride .. it
Fleur-de-lis
Foxglove, Fringe tree, Geranium, Gar-

den Angelica, Glycine ...............0..0 490
Golden Chain . os 491
Golden Coreopsis, ‘Golden Everlasting. 490
Hibiscus ....... caecsvevsnseseesee 490
Hollyhock, Honeysuckle . concsDeoRecn genta 490

Hyacinth, Hydrangea, Ice Plant, Im-
patiens Ealsamina, Iris or Fleur-de-

lisiatewanents 491
Jonquils .. - 492
Laburnum, ‘Lagentreenia Indica, Lark-

spur. Laurel, Eilae) stro toncvaccessuecse 491
Lily, Lily of the conan Lime Plant,

Lychnadia .......... a ouiaeaseaens tO
Lobelia .. . 492
Lungwort <r 492
Lychnis..... 496
Magnolia ..... «- 493

=) MEZELPON reccsncseasssseeseucencessse= taveeccas 493

Passion Flower, Peony, Pea, Peach
(double flowering), Pink, Polyan-
tbus;Primroses) ..,.5.--.ssenseeoeeeee nas

Pyrenium Parthenium, Poppy, Purple
Hy: acijnth Bean, Khynehosperm um
jasminoides, Rose ..

Rose Acacia, Rose-colored | ‘Hibiscus,
Rudbeckia, Scarlet Cacalia, Scarlet
Lychnis, Snowberry, Spiderwort,
Spirea, Syringa or Mock Grane
Syvienys GCC Rrameeoees

Sweet Bay... oe

SweettPeal.cccsssct-.osere tieeseeeeeee

Sweet William, Tulip, Violet

Tiger Lily, W hite Ds. Secs ic

Yellow Rose ......s0csees0- «- 496

Ornamental Shrubs.

Soil, seasons, and modes .........seeeeee0+6 49T

After-management, situation, and ar-
rangement .. se 499

Varieties — Azalea, ‘Calycanthus, ‘Car-
olina Syringa, Double flowering
Almond, Dwarf White flowering
Horse-chestnut, Hawthorn, Honey-
suckle, Japan Sophora, Juniper,
Lilac, Mountain Laurel, Mountain
Rose, Primrose, Rose Acacia, Ruse of
Sharon. Scarlet flowering Chestnut,
Snowball, Spice bush, Spires, Straw-
berry tree lonesetincety pe: veereco- © secssnnpn

Ornamentat and Useful Trees.

Abele, Ailanthus. Ash, Basswood, Box,
Cypress, Elm, Fir, Hemlock, Horse-
chestnut, Larch, Linden, Locust,
Magnolia, Pine. Rock Maple, Spruce,
Sugar Maple, Tulip tree, Willow...... 501

Monthly Calendar of Operations . saeece nO

Grafting, huang: probiny ceiving a pe

Diseases .......... mae

Insects i injurious to ..

Flute budding .............
Fly in sheep .....

. 494

495

. 496
eseveres 497
« 494.
-. 497
. 492

seeeeeeee

501

steeeeeee

meee 650, on
. 576

Folding ......... eae 54
RGOGYOhi -.o-ccncecscssiaccscesanenean . 373
Forcing plants — asparagus. - « 186
“cucumber .. «. 194
ee lettuce ...... . 199
sc. radish... . 204
sf rhubarb..... « 205
“strawberry. «. 305
Fore-shortening ..... 580
Forests, clearing .. 28
ROresbiflyjcass--scscensncseescunesleusecnten we. 639
Form of sheep, best .. 344
Foul-f00t ....2..2scesseseeeees Arpeoctrorcesctresreoc 2"
Fowl1s.
Barn.
Bankiva, Dunghill ............sssesssssesseee SSS

Game, Dorking, Malay or Chittagong, 389
Paduan or Jago, Crested, Hamburgh,
Dutch, Every- ae or ee ae
Poland .. . 39
Spanish, Bantam sssesse seoccone se 391
Dwarf or Creeper, Acaho, Rumkin,
Frizzled, Silky, Russian or Siberian,
Barbary, OE AW ecern np ceeee cee rcrecreeren oa
Ostrich or Cochin-China .........ccrseeeeree 39D

set tenons weeees tewees teneer

INDEX.

Raising, breeding, number of hens for

a cock, qualities of a good cock ......
Selecting hens, sitting, hatching....... . 395
Fartening, caponizing, health ............ 3)

Poultry-houses — general principles
and requisites, situation, form ...... « 542
Roosting-perches and nests ........-.++++ 545

Conveniences for hatching, appurte-
nances, air and space, &c........

we aneneee

The Turkey.
Varieties ........... Sovhcapsveadevnsduashscssusy
Keeping, qualities .............
Laying. sitting, hatching ... =f
Treatment of the young, fattening,
ROPMANLRS coMeaniiddase tal dusionsavebceseccecusiavse: 400
The Goose.
Toulouse ......... -» 400
Chinese, Hong ‘Kong, “Poland, “Com-
mon. Chriggrinasen sill!
General “management, “food . ones 402
Pairing, laying Gorcearee 403,
Hatching, goslings ...........-++ 404
EUGENE sereayesveretys ova «cavesesaussverence 400
The Duck.
Rouen or Rhone, English or Aylesbury
RUMMAGE se eee etal) his cusb caecuinesser cusopsaccene 407
VEREEDON Yiee sates ccvvnsscenacsiaese -. 408
Duck-pond, food ...... ....-.. owe 408
Pairing and laying, eggs ............. . 409
Hatching and care of ducklings .... 410
Fattening ............ Fineeauuy deapanctanas Sumit 411

Diseases of fowls .
Foxglove........... ase
Fractures, bruises, ‘and wounds, in animals, 881
Fractures, bruises, and wounds, in fowls.. 415

Fragrant flowers..... Bie we. 474
Fringe tree .. --. 490
Frizzled fowls .. wee O92
Fruit calendar, monthly ... Siesdssssuneasa LG
Fruits, FRUIT TREES, VINES, ‘ke.

The Apple.

Propagation, soil and situation. mode
of bearing, pruning and keeping ..
Varieties — Summer sorts
Fall sorts ............
Winter and. spring ‘sorts...
Cider sorts, crab sorts...... 5
Cider, How tO MaKe .........sceececsseseeeras
The Apricot.
Propagation, soil and situation, varie-

- 250

ERED eons sls fussts Ssi'dun acviors aad enncpsasacts). OL
The Barberry.
Culture, varieties .......0..sscceccesssossesees 200
The Blackberry.
SOV RUIOIL vies ebnssaatsiesessnstesendssnscesas) ZOO
VRMIGUIOR sa scentadiecessesver avaten teauod cewbevext Od’
The Cherry.
Propagation, soil and situation, varie-
Ra astiaerc-tne naps denidateasaseicavsess aern: 267
The Cranberry.
General culture, &c., varieties............ 270
PERIRIKODD 5c tobu 55 sendousehceanscclsaNaanslnvcn essa” OTe
The Currant.
POWAR ROM s:csas scpalidenncdaswenc . 273

274

Soil and situation, varieties. Act
The Gooseberry.
ee soil and saghicier varie-
THOS 2.22. ..-escserrnsccconcescerees coccapoceees 214
The Grape.
Propagation, soil and situation, cul-
ture, pruning, training..........00000. 276

709
WWTIHIOM nccciet souncvavascavsucunccsartanndived(eorah
The Mediar.
Propagation, soil and situation, varie-
GIGH Ss ganesieavaudusasan scasnensdtenancs a snes Uabaanht ones
The Melon.
Propagation, soil and situation, varie-
MIGBieunetsnaccnsscsscsorkccrccacecsunaureusasanc ciate
The Mulberry.
Propagation, soil and situation ........ . 284
WAIUGHIGH ecsnerspsnedsnesnclterseseusinen,ucenaeseei ore
The Nectarine.
Remarks on, varieties ...... seeces cee ceceares LOD
The Peach.
Propagation, soil and situation, cul-
PUVEs VALIOUOS secascsonstrecnessisoensestogene GOT
The Pear,
pe crnenene soil and Saint cul-
DURE scene anos canes <esilevesnonaasearecer . 291
Varieties . Mceaean sincispvebemkaner serene . 292
The Plum.
Propagation, soil and situation, cul-
EUPES VATICTICS). csvsas: ccsesccccscnseraucasts OO:
The Quince.
PYOPAPAtiON, AC. .s2ccssercss sar sconce ssctsaxer GUO
Varieties ...... PRO TO-DoeeEeraccr nD Der Ce coe ee!
The Raspberry.
Propagation, &c. . RARER eCDrpcy cence ce Lb
WARICHIES c. .can0re0ns vee B03
The Strawberry.
Propagation and culture ..... - 804
Soil and situation, forcing .... s+ 305
SVADICLICS caccudeususstnesercasneas me + B06
IPT e ANON Gietect saan tesspne scohnoesdenes scene i 309
The Blueberry, the Butternut, the Chest-
TRUCE (CG WIG crcdaccot csancvansaumy cot naneraces 310
The Filbert, the Lemon, the priate the
Olive .. Gack angi flesatvenren OLE
The Orange. the Pomegranate. isunvacenbiatae 312
The Shellbark, the Walnut, the Whortle-
DOLE Y.cavaceenenncicaras ss se:ncenscveneanaveoanane . 813
Monthly Calendar of Operationa .......... 313
Grafting, budding, pruning, and train-
ing trees, vines, KC. ......... sssseve heaven :
Diseases of fruit trees ..... sstnenaance OOF
Insects injurious to....... seeeesee 600
Fumigating hives ........ BS «. 446
Fundament bot ............+0+ «+. 6387
Furrows, striking the, &¢. .....cccsseeeeeseene 37

Galloway cattle ........+.++0
Gamma moth
Game fowls
Garden. — (See Kitehen-garden and Flow-

wasdanens OFT

ers.)

MEAT POL) cradisenv scaxatsed cop sacancsnc ons esssausuaanaaaee 874
Garlic... 195
GATE sccrncpe- on anon meeraneckearn . 555
Gathering, in ploughing. 41

se APPLES ..c2ccscevces 250
Gault’s churn . « 224
GI BDRG ai casast cprestcorcecbcoscedesnarleneunausunte epake 400
Gelding.—(See else =-< 7
Geranium plant .. shusseseeuseueses 490
Gestation of neat cattle .. =F

= FEN TIOCHD ess verencses

ae s¢ sheep...

L! “ swine...

Giddy in animals ‘
Gifford! HOYEG.s...c00eves00s sesanccersossscenn covserees ~ 361

710 INDEX.

Gilmore’s bee-house .....-.seseerererersrcerces sees 432 Clinton, Cunningham, Diana, tae
6 «. 433 Black aay a eae: . 27S

Girdling ~» 59D Isabella. ....... sine Sith eentees Peete |

Glanders..... 374 Lenoir.. . 279

Glass hives....... 430 Miller’s Bureund phe vols dae esas tenia Peer vii

Gloucester cheese. 241 Missouri, Norton’s Virginia, Ohio....... 279

Glycine plant... . 490 Red and White Muscat of Alexandria 277

Goat. — description, ete. - 363 Royal.Museadine:..;.-..ccvc..esssacee-keaseeane 279

ee varieties . 364 Schuylkill Muscadel, Scuppernong..... 278

Goggles in aniiala.. we 380 Warren’s Madeira, White Frontignan,

Golden-chain plant sraiconae Siete Caters Somnaes aeons 491 White Sweetwater, Winnie............ 279

Golden coreopsis do., golden everlasting do. 490 Vineyards.

Goose. Culture of. ...ccsscswaespiaccesnntacwautsoseaeeeneelen
Toulouse . scwanaerel 400 Pressing the grapes.. se 280
Chinese, Hons Kong, Poland, ‘Common 401 Making wine.....,........+ . 280
General management, food.. w- 4Q2 ee Champagne wine.. - 281
Pairing, laying...........-sese0.+ w 403 Constituents of Wine... 282.
Hatching. gesinns wees 404 Monthly Calendar of Operations 313
Fattening. ........... «. 405 Grafting, Basding, peuniag; hosing 564
DISEASES acer rissecenecsoscececite sacacessunpneetsaneel 2 Diseases. ons invade pettneseeeee . 599

GoosEBERRY. Insects injurious toss. Pet 650
Propagation, soil, situation.......... seeee 274 | GRASS,

Varieties, — Capper’s Top Sawyer....... 274 Meadow or Green, Spear or June....... 149
Coleworth’s White Lion, Crompton’s Timothy, Cat’s Tail or Herd’s Grass, Or-
Sheba Queen, Early Green Hairy, chard or Cock’s-foot, Meadow Fescue. 150
Early Sulphur, Early White, Far- Blue, Flat-stalked Meadow, Ray or
row’s Roaring Lion, Hill’s Golden Rye, RKed-top, Fowl Meadow, Fine
Gourd, Houghton’ s Seedling, Keene’s Bent eccscccnswasar-cacesesaeoreee steno seers LOL
Seed in pee ccra-cstece scans nessvseteetecans see 218 Sweet-scented Vernal, Potiy: x.sddoaneets 152
Melling’s Crown Bob...... ......:0+-sseeeee 274 Annual Spear, Crab, Crested Dog’s
Nixon’s Green Myrtle, Old Rough Red, Tail, Crow-foot, Downy Oat, Fiorin,
Parkinson’s Laurel.Pitmaston Green Floating Fescue Foxtail, Gama,
Gage, Prophet’s Rockwood, Red War- Guinea
rington, Wellington Glory, White Italian Rye, “Meadow ‘Foxtail, ‘Narrow-
Honey, Woodward’s W hitesmith, leaved Meadow, Reed Meadow, Rib-
Yellow Ball.. 2 75 bon, Rice, Salt Marsh, Sheep’s Fes-
Monthly Calendar of Operations. paeecres 2 S13 cue, Smooth-stalked Meadow, Tall
Diseases.. ssdavisakvonseacenerwcaatOO) Fescue, Tall Meadow Oat... eee ci:
Insects injurious ‘to. 680 Lands alternately in grass and tillage. 154
Goslin gs \crunenesvarscenesena 404 Soiling, haying.....+..+. acaqatsletaneunct ences OU
Goss horse. KOOL Lands permanently in crass. is inde ee oneenC OD
TAIN TIC y SRBE RRR at Irae IRIN They Perennial grass-lands fit for mani
GRAFTING. Meadow Jandss.2:).cc.ncs<cnesceonsvessseeene Ow
Uses... .. 564 Permanent pastures....... » 162
Different kinds, ‘utensils and materials 565 Diseases cicessy ateynee . 599
By detached scions..........-sssscesanseesees 566 Insects injurious to..... «» O73
Sy eubterchi Sitch 8 ya eecemerecer concen coeeconeescn: 567 | Grass-lands, operations on.. » 48
Splice grafting the peach, nectarine, Grazing Cattless.cccssascasseetee ma « 337
apricot, etc.; cleft grafting, rind Gravelly (s0ilss-c:ccssoccss ons cacnceee - 24
Fane LINN EY Socrgeee acon nenececeactanen. soc cuerece 569 | Grease-disease in animals... . 37
Cleft grafting the vine, saddle graft- Green-house plants.........+ saectuee ns OO
ing, “side orafting... 5 570 Green-house.

Wedze grafting, root grafting, herba- May be easily construeted,—materials
ceous grafting 5 grafting by approach, and mode of building..............2...0. 550
OL AMALGH ING oo. ocse<icqcnces cnsonctessesqrs 571 Arrangement of the lights.. seat b

GRAIN. Flues for heating......... « 552
Culture, wen ctes, treatment of, etc.... 69 | Green or sage cheese.. « 249
Diseases.. Raeneskenivaceesy 599 | Green whey........... -. 236
Insects injurious ‘to. PerodicncraaMiceecson Ate 639 | Greening apples... -- 260

(See Heavy or Field Crops,—also each Griping in animals. . 374
kind under its head.) Grogziness in horses. - 37

GEUGIN BIC sie ce cox cuceacvacdwsassenecsateceata Ground-beetle.. a . 639

Granaries, site, Ctc.........e08. Growing: grains, "Veaetables, fruits, ete.

GRAPE. _ (see each kind under its head).

Propagation, soil and situation, cul- Grubs and worms nor see Insects)........ a Ce
ture, pruning, training................. 276 | Gypsy moth...... oo ote ee sodatueneeiaiaannent) Ge

Varieties, — Alexander....... 278

STACK see eentmaess nesennn: cen 279 H

Black Hamburgh.......... .-....+ Scpeccer 277 Y

Black a ae Black Sweetwater, Bland 279 | Half-hardy annual flowers... .....sscesseeeseee ATT

Catawba.... ssececs coscoccoaccsnanapesdeche 246, | EEAMDOTEN LOWS) spsrsrenccanngacenshGedcaadiasee eee

INDEX. 711
Hams, — preparing..........csessssseererasesessees BOL Sugar-Cane.
“Westphalia... : ae Description, varieties, soil, planting... 104
Hard soils, draining.... Making sugar, claying, etc.......... sss 106

Hardy annual flowers......... ;
Harrowing, uses and MOdEeS......00. eee eee vee
HARVESTING.

PRM eMac cen bussenwccvecae:Nentwsessasdqhaaaces 4

Barley... cr 4S
OOrn isis. sas. (91
Buck wheat.. = 95
Broom corn.. FANG eae oe
Hatching chickens...s0.sses.+ sexe 895
es turkey-chickens. bes assy 099
os LOSLINGS...+ ces eee renee 404
se ducklings. 410
Hawthorn... .......0. 00 501
Haying...... 156
Hay-Caps........ 159
“ Pressing of.. 159
Headin¢-in... 581
Health of fowls... . 396
Hemlock .. Manatees (OOS
Heart, inflammation of i in “animals.... server OVE
Heavy or Fretp Crops.
Wheat.
Classification... Gustsa\spstbsiesebammespammdus, OO
Best varieties for cultivation... maisincur, -f0L
Soils, time for sowing, seed, culture... tz.
Quantity of seed, after-culturess.... 73
Cutting and harvesting: ae Ae
Diseases and enemies... .....0cceceeereeeseee 75
Barley.
GUIBEPIHER EDM rasccasas cress ctscsnpctanaecscbeisee 76
Kind of soil.............. 77

Preparing the ‘Jand, rowing, ‘culture,
harvesting... 78
Threshing and dressing , uses, “diseases
BNE CNSMICS, 0.00, ecevpsicasenaivairwcaeeosdl 09
Rye.
PM E@NIGIBCS, BO conc censc0btactsavacnoe nes do'connses 79
Time for sowing. culture, product, uses 80
Diseases and CneMics........00essereeeeeere Sl
The Oat.
Varieties...... ace hae cae 82
Soil, preparing the Jand, ‘sowing, cul-

EVRA se ack ce vids n cotes ene eaadneaasive eacstnc’ 83
Reaping, diseases and enemies........... 84
Indian Corn.
Varieties ........+0. 85
Preparation of the land “for planting,
season for ploughing........-+.++- 86
Planting, Manuring,.........c0e. soccer severe 87
Number of grains to the hill, depth
of planting, tillage........0...sscsesrseeee 88
Thinning and suckering... a. 90
Harvesting... : ena ae
Preserving, diseases ‘and enemies,...... 2
Buckwheat.
WPESLTIPLION, BOUS:....2<>ssopanaces scuscs assess, (9D
MODMLUD TEL ois -vecpacassact ase? Oe
Harvesting, uses. as atoccescercccssscce > OO
The Potato.
Propagating, i saatenes mee culture
and tillage... ed Saeaaved ae

MBC ous meter ta caunan esse ane

Diseases and enemies............+
Sweet Potato.

Description, varieties, soil, culture...... 99

Preservation, propagation... 100
Sugar-Beet.

Soil, culture, manufacture ofsugar,etc, 101

Seas

Chinese Sugar-Cane.
Description, soil, climate, culture....... 110

Making sugar, ps ES GRIT: Hy 118
African Sugar-Cane.

Description... siupusasuatd 114

Varieties, soil, “culture, uses Uestonses Neasbe 115

ton.

Description, varieties, soil, culture, 116,117

Picking, whipping, ginning. paek-
RUA seca uasaicusanuaassencan secareahe Sade 119-121
Tobacco.
Description, varieties, soil, culture,
QU. evrccscnee<) na san cnss ceicieenuai abave 122-124

Cutting, curing, stripping, prising 125-127
Rice.
Description, varieties, culture, clean-
STP SES: cosh noses oaeieeaes feuneadeuace 127-129
Tea.
Description, SRELeHE, soil, climate,
culture, curing... sessssasedsves LOU=LOe
Broom Corn.
Varieties. method of planting 133

Culture, harvesting, scraping. 134
ISB 5: cesateacoheusrser cantare ee aneneie 135
Millet,
Manieties,0il...:s..eccospcerasafedearhekhauceasy, 100
Gulibtar eae cuness ccacscentutsnieece shabaphh Neade « 136
Hemp.
OOUS, CHIRUTG:: sa cscasanccsdcsnecsuuvursat bechar edo
Gathering......... ste 138
Rotting, breaking, dressing. 139
Flaz.
Warleties, S019 2. <.cacscscennesevenvovere seers 140
Culture, gathering, rippling........ 141
Weateripgy USRissnvcssssccsdiewnsnresaraee 142
Lucern.
Description... agseeite we 144
Soil, culture, tillage... . 146
Uses... SO CLRERECE CAN PERCE er: 146
Sain foin.
Description and habits,, ........:sscseceeee 146
CulRGN ey cdtines: cesncagdsssescuasagsiypohewevupeee Dd
The Tare.
Description, soil, preparing the soil,
tithe of sowing, CUILULE.......04..-cc00e 148
The Clovers.
WaARIGSIESS (CUILUTG:s:\vosscsenvectehatrecainen 149
MOWING sq crevasescaveancmncedaatey 150
Getting the seed, threshing 151
The Grasses.
Varieties . - 151
Lands alternately i in n grass ‘and tillage. 164
Soiling, baying.. : see + 156
Lands | permanently in grass. Lachey «+ 160
Perennial grass-lands fit for mowing,
MUCAM OW LADUE.) 5c. nccuscovessosvedsit anes 161
Permanent Basynres «. 162
Stocking pastures... + 163
ISGHRES: cays cavatencere .. 599
Insects injurious iE ccitnins cana ait +» 639
HEDGEs.
General remarks...........--.e0e 557
Varieties of pene. plpnia “n 557
Buffalo Berry ee - 559
Buckthorn... . 559
Cactus........ 559
Cockspur.. o 559
CLADJELO....0000000s -eecceencees soe ens severe sarees OOD

712

Emory’s Thorn..
Honey Locust.

Mesquit.......... Pe 561
Osage Orange........ 558
Zizyphus lycoides... 561
Planting the hedge.. sbaeteuais acesdeesacacecbe 561

First, second, third, and fourth b years 562
Replanting and mending Pececore is
Heifers (see Cattle).

THeMIOCK treCinesssvessssesveccucescsesseeacces O01, 504
Hemp.
SOUS CHIGUUG-ccacccacne cerveseectanecatnceny «. 137
Gathering <<sc.ccccccesencecsiaeveen .. 138
Rotting, breaking, dressing seaneeee eneaee 139
Hens (see Fowls).
Herbaceous grafting.........c00:ccscescccsssees eon af al
oe pruning .. Pree h!)
& training... . 588
Herbs.. 210
(See Kitchen- “garden, — also “each “kind
under its head.)
Hereford (COW: cscsseresceseecearsbenctntersrtecsrecen SOA
Be OXrses . 302
Hessian fly... .. . 642
Hibiscus Pints: wens 496
Hickory nut.. we 313
Hide-bound ....... ee OF
High blackberry ... cece a sooe 207
Hives and DOXEB..sssceee quogenaenacelsnnch aseenedne - 421
Hog (see Swine).
Holderness cattle.........00sersceeee ceeees - 335
THON Y DOCK ncarvees ccocssese cence ssance once iacvecses A900
Honey (see Bees).
LGM CY-OG Wi eascacsorranerecuasteeesiscereausesaweeeeetOUO
Honey Locust.......00. es « 558
Honeysuckle ..... +00 seeeeres wee. 490
Hong Kong goose.... «» 401
Hoof, brittleness of... +. 370
Hoose disease..... - 370
HOo0vVe Gisease.......cecccoserecerevereesseccsssesaeys GLO
Hop.
OM tUrGs5..nccdenscesswascesduscnesscachseueesseil GD
After- culture.. 196
Taking the crop, drying... 197
Assorting pores ane ceo eoeosc-agn 198
Diseases. 599
Horehound.... = sess 212
Horned or neat “cattle. hiseekanegetes<voviesuate eetees 317
(See each kind, under its head.)
Horse.
Rearing, breeding, weaning............... 336

Castrating, Wises and “managing

COMB ce-snasesssectiens =r
Feeding, ‘anatomy. aks
Varieties, — Arabian .
American, Mexican, Canadian, United

States, Morgan, Gifford, Goss seve ote 361
Baropedn,: pena Clydesdale, § Suf
folk.. ecelveouctiad ach rotneece - 362

Diseases... . 367

Monthly Calendar of Operations........ 381

Stables, site and construction..... caer ok

Stalls, racks, Mangers.......+.0-e0 :.. 5382

Insects injurious to.... eevee 636
Horse-chestnut tree....... 501
Horse-power... ....0+.- 164
Horse-radish .. : rer ioeraeay teeny 1 KES}
HorricunruraL ‘SclENTIFIC: OPERATIONS.

Grafling.
MUBES eeaccnonscncnceranecsactreasaeecesnceseaetere . 564

Different kinds, utensils and materials, 565

Grafting by detached scionS............... 566
Splice grafting... «- 567
Splice grafting ‘the "peach. “nectarine,
apricot, ete., cleft grafting, rind
PTPALCIN GS ceccatacdacheccaesce-eeuaneeenaneaem -. 569
Cleft grafting the vine, saddle grafting,
Side. prafting....0.-<scseac-assedneerteueeees 570
Wedge grafting, root grafting, herba-
ceous grafting. grafting by approach,
OP MaTCh ING. csevcssacpaeancnbeeeneeenneens
Budding.
Wesiseenseeees wdevenescnscusacnldacensaeneen 572
Performing the operation. eundaneesenkneees
Transmitting scions, wax for budding,
shield budding... .:: «csssseessacsseeu sale . 5T4
Shield budding without a bud or eye,
circular shield budding... 575
Flute budding, annular budding, ‘after-

CALC sesentersacnere pepevenes Seesereeees arecvecere OLO
Pruning.
Uses, forest trees, ornamental trees, or-
namental SHTUbS.........sseceerecsserese ea ONT
Fruit trees and shrubs. eee 578
Herbaceous plants .. 579
Close: pruning: ..:.-0-c0r-cespeeccateenee eee 579
Shortening-in, fore-shortening, ‘spur-
ring-in ....... SereECOneeremEascne orate tite!)
Heading im) ...5-..cec-sasseaeoeieceanees Reacts Gi
Lopping, cutting down, » SOD and
pinching out... waieaeneneaeiaeneen
Ringing, disbudding -- 583
Disleafing, slitting eat splitting, -, bruis-
ing and tearing, root pruning secbeaese 584
Girdling and felling, seasons for pru-
TU ereee nese cab eneesssoncuevenieaasuneanenaaanalene
Traininy.

Uses, principles ........sc:cscsconscaccsaneasue DOG
Manual operations .....
Training herbaceous and shrubby
plants in pots, training hardy flower-
ing shrubs in the open ground, train-
ing fruit trees.........
Different modes of training bushes and
trees in the open garden, and fruit

588

seeene

trees against walls or espaliers ....... 590
Training dwarfs in the-open garden,
spiral Cylinders .....0-ceo-ssstovssecnenesasOOL
Spurring-in ............008 nadonaees OOS
Conical standards.... wos 09S
Fan training ........... F wee O94
Horizontal training ............sesccrseseseee O96
Perpendicular training, comparative
view of the different modes of train-
ing wees 597
Hot-beds .. -» 479

Houses, how io construct ‘the: various 8 farm, 512

How to judge of eae for various chiens
and purposes .. sores Ole

Huber’s leaf hive. Ds

Huckleberry ........... vee 313
Hyacinth .......... . 491
Hydrangea plant » 491
Hydrocephalus in animals .. see O10
Hyssop...... Sectodin so unas caucssnestesonsavanetesulen! ail
I,

IcE-HOUSES

Necessity for........s.e0+-

Mode of construction

Filling With ice ...ss.ssssscssessssseesesceeanee O94

INDEX. 713
Tod plant ......cccscecssoorescsersvesevees sarees cevesnes 491 Pale-brindle beauty moth ............-++0« . 655
Imphee .. 1l4 Lime-looper or mottled umbre moth,
Implements. — (See each kind under its small ermine moth, codling moth... 656
head.) Ked grub of the plum, red bud cater-
Implement-houses ... Sreaeee wee 53D Pillar, plum tree tortrix ........:s0+s. 657
Improvement of breeds of sheep «. sarwsnayalewan DO Copper-colored weevil, curculio, bac-
Inarching ... 71 chus or purple apple weevil...... cand 658
Increasing the ‘productive powers of soils. 26 Stem-boring weevil, borer, apple weevil, 659
InpIAN Corn. Pear weevil, oblong WEEWIlicstcasnasersstes 660
Culture, ee, &e.. eee 85, 192 Red-footed beetle, garden beetle, apple-
Diseases .. . 599 bark beetle, small bark beetle... 661
Insects injurious ‘to. * . 639 Common elm-destroying seholytus,
Indigestion in fOW1S .....-.s::cesseeeseeeeerseeeeee 414 plum saw-fly.. 662
Inpieo. Pear saw-fly, peach or “poplar saw-fly.. 663
Description, varieties, soil ..........--.... 166 Pear chermes, apple chermes.. 664
Culture, extraction of the dye, uses . . 167 Plant louse, or aphis ............+++ «- 665
Inflammation of bowels in animals ......... 369 Small and large pear midges ............. 666
ee BESTA one) sosen oer 369 Black gall midge, paradoxical pear pla-
= eyes ... . 374 tygaster, GUID UNG .cksoiaeaears aes . 667
“ie BEIGE Tian, cu veanichs auciavdecsiase sesien 371 Vine beetle, vine scale insect, vine saw-
< % heart.... 74 DV avocpess ssseseh es Seappuaeedrereciascatinasseaaen
“ ** kidneys. . 375 Canker worm ..... -
og SOOLIVOLs«e=50 eevee B76 Apple-tree borer.. oaence
a “ Jungs... 378 | Insects injurious to Flower ‘plants.
6 * womb . 381 Earwig. orange scale insect, mealy bug,
Inflammatory evil in animals vores 368 Oleander scale insect .......+.secceeeee tees 671
Tinfl wera ...........ceccees socessene ces cnccasconesceees 370 Rose scale, cactus scale, sweet-bay

Insects, Noxiovs.
Insects which live constantly on or in
Domestic Animals, and propagate on
them.
Lice, horse bot.......... -+
Fundament bot, ox warble ..

Red bot. sheep bot per pascipietnnanns acne bens
Horse fiy, forest fly. Epler fly, heey
tick, bird spider fly... Secwetet twasap Oo
Insects injurious to Grain.
Gibbous ground beetle ......-.-..:..06: 00 639

German or field cockchaffer, lined click
beetle, wire worm F
Winter or dart moth
White-line dart moth, botys, corn moth,

corn weevil Hessian fly .........-.0

WHEAG TIAGO ®.cisces. .. 000. scsonces ced a:

Insects injurious to Vegetables.

Spring beetle or skip-jack. asparagus
beetle, twelve-spotted leaf-beetle ..

Earth-flea beetle, turnip fly. mole
ericket, churr worm. jarr worm, eve
churr, earth crab, painted field-bug,
cabbage bug ..

Plant lice, aphis, ‘Jarge cabbage white
butterfly, small white butterfly,
green-veived white nee eran
moth

Cabbage moth

White-line brown-eyed moth, cabbage-
garden pebble moth. carrot moth .

Roesel’s tiny meee lene onion Bass cab-
bage fly, lettuce fly . NSP ORLe

Negro ALY ..sessereceeeeeene tersen ene cae coeeesens

Insects injurious to Fruit, Pruit trees,

Shrubs and Vines.

Black-veined white butterfly, or haw-
(OOLTESPOULIG (seve sisenseucssdces: an soxesavee

Yellow-tailed moth .............

Lackey moth, gypsy moth

Goat moth, seaarvanaie moth, fggre-
of-8 moth . nA

Lunar-spotted | pinion “moth, “Winter
moth .

60*

645

Seeescdvesstwadussdusas sisassede pnb exscase. Gd

scale, rose moth, plant mite or red

SPAT ...-e-sseseeceeeeees cocereesensenseneeas . 672
Insects injurious to Meadows.
General remarks, anne er -bird,
migratory locust... cuaeene Perry 63]

Rye-grass moth ..
Antler or grass moth. “-
Insects injurious to the Cotton plant.

‘ otton worm, aeceaven Otenemeeeesskerss 75
temedies . : phases 676

The red bug; 0 or cotton. n stainer, pa eS
IDIL AO Utacae ewan tenenrlerwens saeesder eo | ONO
Remedies .. oa ONG
The boll worm, description ‘of. 677
ROMERDIOS pe racves et as cnactern -covaneriepaen .. 678
The cotton louse, description of ......... 679

Animals injurious to Cultivated Fields.
The pocket gopher, or ponched rat..... 679
Description, location, and habits........ 67

Devastation on cultivated Jands.... 680
Remedies .........seceereesee . 680
Silvery mole.. 681
Flabits ..:...+. 681
Remedies ... 682
Tris plant ......00+ ceees eens erereeeeeeeees « 491
Irrigating ... - ov, 02
ce channels . iswnx Saquituesshosecsunsenneayane 63

. kind of soils for the purpose,

waters best aden’. 2 meadow-
watering ........ = aca O%
ce preparing ‘the surface .. 65
oe time to operate ....... seisoens =, 66
Isabella grape .. ss. ssssssceeecsesesecseeseesevenes 278

Jago fowls .......- aiegup at sagnd Seuubs avuunvenldavusvenPeOtO!

JANUARY.
Kitchen-calendar for .........:++++++
Fruit calendac ..........
Live-stock calendar .......
Floricultural calendar ...

Taponicus plant .......00seeee sree

Jarr WOTM ......+++

114 INDEX.
Jaundice in animals .......6.sssccseecssseeeseeeee O1O | LAND.
Java fowls . 392 Clearing waste'.....:00ccasescesschenapscasnseneneet
Jerusalem artichoke . . 184 Alternately in grass and tillage .
Joint-felon in animals .. we 375 Permanently in grass .........s0+ 08 ‘
Jonquil plant .......... aeasien Sanstielveoassecsenreee AOS Meadow? cic. cssccsccccavenceeeseeeneneuaen ssveet Oe
JULY. (See Soils.)
Kitchen-garden calendar for .........s0+0 21.8. March Pine ictecssestecacescanenceasaneettee «+» 501, 504
Fruit calendar..........sccceseccseee -. 315 | Larkspur plant ............00.
Live-stock calendar........ . .. 385 | Larva. — (See Insects.)
Floricultural calendar ..........see.s0see. 009 | Laurel plant.....
JUNE. .| Lavender plant
Kitchen-garden calendar for ...........+. 217 | Laying —hens.........006 sssecees
Fruit calendar..........0.-.s000 90s .. Old Cs turkeys . icosdseeshene A
Live-stock calendar .......-.. « 385 RCW) Gnieese teeees :
Floricultural calendar ... . 508 se ;
MUMIPEL ELEC vcs ace anevn one tsntiane chosaclenseanecescence OOL Menta HiVeetsete et -
Leek..... ca
K Lemon ....... 2
J Letinee; varie ies and. cu ture. “o-
Keeping apples ... fly a
o cranberries .. Levelling uneven surfaces .......... =. Oe
Kendall’s cylindrical ‘churn .. as Lice in cattle — Se see Insects) « -. 376
Kicks and other bruises .............c.seecescoeee 375 | Lilac bush... PACCENG 491, 501
Kidneys. inflammation of in animals ...... 3875 | Lily .. -- 492
KITCHEN-GARDEN. Lime, manuring “With. 55
Vegetables. Lime tree. Secbsaseees 311
Culture of, &e. aaa ee 185 | Lime plant... Sencarpeatcnes.coa% 492
Borage, Beam .sscccoe-...0-00 186 | Lime looper or moth .. 656
Beet icccceprcstacncenermacians vavcwaneite 188 | Linden tree..............2- - 501
Borecole, Broccoli, Cabbage .... 189 | Liquorice plant. 213
Cardoon, Carrot ........0...00+s00s LOM hitter ss..2.- Propeercrntcoecene Is
Celery, Chive, Corn ....... 192 | Live stock (see ‘Animals).
Corn-salad, Cress, Cucumber ... ......-.+ 193 | Liver. inflammation of in animals........... 876
LOCO eer anos ecco: c maces OnE CRaEC 194.) Tosi S0118;..522. 10s eecacsacetvecasaeseeeeeeee
Egg plant, Endive, Garlic, Hop .. 195 | Lobelia.. reece eceen
Horse-radish, Leek ............eeeeee es 198 Locked-jaw i in animals,
Lettuce, Morel........... LOO octets .c-sescsndesaese aveiean
Mushroom, Mustard... 200 | Locust tree. ie cenesnnepseae
Onion .. ~ 201 | Long-wooled sheep
Okra, Parsnip, Pea 202 | Lopping........
Pepper .. Kona sectaniae 203 | Loss of cud.......
Pumpkin, R tadish, Rhubarb a vow 204 sc fei thers... aan
Rape. Salsifyin suc scspaustne> cnpntescsnereccres 205 | Lucern, — description...
Scorzonera, Sea-kale, Shallot, Skirret, “bil, culture, tillage.
SPINACH ceeswennsteecncwarieassesoseiesesncoriees 206 sc uses...
Squash, Tomato, Turnip ......... seceeeeese 207 | Lumar-8 potted pinion moth.. racer cr
Monthly Calendar of eestor si . 216] Lungs, inflammation of in animals....
Diseases ......... “5 sees 599 | Lungwoft....-....ccesseceseree 492
Insects i injurious ee il snceeassccess . 644 | Lychnadia plant... ve 492
Herbs. Lychnis plant.........+ secasteeeerssesees seessersee 496
Culture of, &c.— Anise, Balm, Basil,

Caraway .. 210
Coriander, Camomile, Chervil, ‘Dill. pao: : M.

Fennel, Foxglove, Horehound, i, Hyssop, MADDER.

Lavender . 12 Description, soil, culture.......... poaeassse a1 GS
Liquorice, Marjoram, Mint... AB} Ploughing out, cleansing, and drying
Parsley, Penny-royal, _ Peppermint, the roots... ......66

Purslane, Rosemary .. . 214 Grinding the roots, propagation ‘and
Rue, Saffron, Sage ........ 215 preservation of sets, USeS....... senaades LTO
Savory, Tansy. Thyme......... 2.0. 216 | Maggots (see Insects).

Monthly Calendar of Operations ... » 216) Magnolia. .....c-ssecssseuusunnant veacnnndasieaganeude Mego

I VIOQGICALUGlcs-nessacascssosenearaneescenasaes F 335 | Magnolia grandiflora... ‘501, 503

Malay or Chittagone fowls. ae 389

Mallenders in horseS......s.ssscccceeceseer serves O10

L. INEQTEC occcwerae= miner seeemed aielccebatawah a Ip

Laburnum plant ....<c..cesccccccssessssssecoecsee 491 | MAMGELB....0010: 000 vnscee see coeeosennsnsossnsen-sexsss | OOS
Lackey moth «+. 652 | MANURING.

Lactometer, use of......... Speecigs Serercercatceccn Ge) Action of manures, natural manures.. 49

Lambs. — (See Sheep. Urine, various kinds of excrement..... 50

Lameness of shoulders in animals... Night-soil. management of manures... 51

Lampas im Horses ...ccssessssessceseescoe core Forming composts, litter.....erecceeee 52

INDEX.

Applying liquid manures,folding, dead

DOUIES, DOMES, OtCace sc-s0cnvecsesecrcevers 54
Vegetable manures. mineral manures
— lime, marl, gypsum, ashes....... ven! BB
Manuring plants. trees, ete, (see each
kind under its head).
Maple trees (Rock and Sugar)...,..0e0 501
Marcu.
Kitchen-garden calendar for.....-..... ses 21g)
Fruit calendar....... fasteaxeescssas w S14
Live-stock calendar..... 384 |
Floricultural calendar... - 507
PPBDIG PAG aecats aici ecnp sexes aees.ca 213
RAMs cxeaentncavanxuas toaseesonandasansevibise~nasedaver (U0
May.

Kitchen-garden calendar for.............. 217
POU CHENOA 50, ses .05> enrcacnies a
Live-stock calendar...

Floricultural calenda « 508
QMMPR aE oreo cdanapsense en tanenaask Ree
Meadows, operations on... . 48

id watering ........ 64

U; PUBSS areas BS 161

ce insects injurious to.. 673
MIOHUUEETS sasesipsscossessssscues ssesnscsdrucescssssse (O71
MepLar.

Propagation, soil and situation, varie-
ties, — Bluke’s Large, German or
Dutch, Nottingham, Stoneless.......

Monthly Calendar of Operations........ 313

Gratting, pudding, praning, training. 564

Diseases............ ey otgeceertree ae

Insects injurious ‘to. BS 650
Megrims in horses........ ..... 377
MELon.

Propagation, soil and situation.......... 283

Varicties.— (Water-Melous). Imperial,
oe New Jersey, Spanish, Ci-

(Musk. Melons), Keising, ‘Green “Hoosai-
nee, Large Germek, Karly Canteleup,
Nutmeg, Green Citron, Palermo,
Orange Canteleup, Black Rock,
Sweet Ispahan.......... Sveute

Monthly Calendar of Operations...

Grafting, budding, pruning, training.

PTS DABEN fo peen oa, <ansisen nuasadnbciandesh¥necnsuns

Insects injurious to..

Merino sheep.........00000 06
Mesquit.............

MGZErEGn PIANE)., ... 5-02. .w-ssescaccece EaseibesKem (S00
Midges destructive (see Insects).
DMPO ME LLG: convene eaddunecassrsaascsyeasvs sacsuuspe) 400

MiLpeEw.
Uses of the term, nature..
Growth and phenomena...
Provocatives, preventives, correctives.
MILE.
Management.........
Whole-milk cheese..
Skim-milk cheese...
Whole-milk butter..
Milking...
Ascer taining ‘the quality of...
(See Dairy and Cattle.)

Henne eee e eee nena ee eeeneenee

Millet,—Varieties, SOil........00ceseseceeeeeeereee 135

* sowing, culture............ -. 136
Mineral manures......... ae san 60
Miner’s bee-hive.... A nsee GOL
Mint........ es Peo at 219

Miscarriage in animals. sevvoscenececsssecsaceance O17

715

Mock-orange plant... ssossessceeosecsse sor ece ees
Mode of Penning the segs of

496

caponizing... akeheanneeh ave oneeesnane RO
MopELs oF RouraL Buiprnas.
Farm-house... ipiahslsrs safispe nan shagahendeten Oty
One-story house...... 613
Medium-sized house........ . 5lt
Large furm-house........ 518
Tudor cottage. . 519
Double cottage... 620
Dai Venaieas cascade 523
Complete dairy. 514
MOMGICIICK EGS cvczcs;vaaancesesssicanccncecannserateete 545
Molting of fowls, season of, ete.......... 394, 412

MoNTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS.
Kitchen-garden.. ........se.sssee-ssesee sees

Live-stock ....
Floricultural.......
Moor-ill in animals.

May eles sce nsmss essseee 199
Morgan-horse.. ave . 361
Morus multicaulis........- :..c2s00 eres setecerenh te.
Moths, destructive (see Insects).

Morive Powers FoR Farm Purposes.
Windemill eso. steccscesactsasen
Ilorse-power.....
Portable grist-mill...

Mottled umbre-moth......
Mountain) SHECD...20<<.00cecsavesncesncapBwccterss ne 842
Mountain laurel-tree, mountain rose....... 501
MO WINI Bis cewsus denscesansjctecteountvecte secession 156, 161
MULBERRY.
Propagation, soil and situation... 284, 457
Varieties, — Red, Black, Johnson,
WIEG so. excuvocivaoncasnaceveae ve daveae saceen 285
Monthly Calendar of Operations......., 313

Diseases..

Insects i injurious to.. 45
Mule, — rearing, ee ete
Mushroom... st ee
Musk-geranium..
Musk-melon.. aid
Mustard,—V arieties and culture...
Myrtle plant...

Grafting, ee eninge training. 564
SF, satel

steeeee

Names of cattle at different ages..............
WAY CISSUS DIAM Gass sis.)s cccvs ceveevucsssessve

Nasal gleet in Horses.........sccccr. ssossesaccoes 378
IV AStUir GP UUM aes c scor detec nasinul eceuariioceveuss thusetes 493
INGTIVE) CAE Cciciicacses<cecacovenns 825

Nature and treatment of soils. ae
IN@yel-ill int aniMAlS...cccncsccess<s css cesceves cats
Neat CATTLE,
Rearing, treatment, varieties, ete......
Insects injurious tO...........ccceccee cesses 630
NECTARINE.
Remarks on.. sauscuevaseeen
Varieties, — Boston... .
Bromfield, Downton, “Due de Tellier,

Barly, Violets <sanjossacesccnaeesstuscauvets - 287
Elruge . ante + 286
Hunt’s s Tawney... 287
Jaune Lisse. . 286

Lewis’s.........
Musk Violet, "New White...
Perkins’s Seedling...

Pitmaston’s Orange.

716 INDEX.

Red ROMA Us scrsdstsscceneocestoeena-seenseee saat oe) Ayrshire... dpesiontaudeas des snneaaneeenmentesetey
Roussanne... - 286 New heicester... 334
Monthly Calendar of Operations eencpes 313 Holderness, Galloway, ‘Sussex, ‘Alder-
Grafting, Lic pruning, training.. 564 ney, Suffolk, Kyloe........... cepostoscse 3
Diseases.. aia Rai sbslehiivadacr’«sciuenensmtOGo Diseases... one
Insects injurious ‘to. be eee 650 Monthly Calendar of Operations.

Wew (cheese;r.-c.cncsevese ree . 247 Insects injurious t0........eseceeseseeeeeeees 636

Newfoundland ‘dog. see 300

New Leicester cattle.. « ood P

Li i a aoa OL :

INOVINaH, MOTSE:-c.-vocnccwess sourercceqcviecdsaunedee= 361 | Paduan or Jago fowls... ...sccceeseerevees erveee O90

Norway Spruce Fir........ssesesseeeseeeeee 501, 506 | Pairing of geese.......- +. 403

NOVEMBER. i ducks... . 409
Kitchen-garden calendar for.............. 219 | Pale-brindle beauty- “moth... . 655
Fruit calendar.........scees esses .. 315 | Palsy in animals............ + 380
Live-stock calendar........ .. 381} Paring and porning land ~ o2
Floricultural calendar..... .... 511 | Parmesan cheese... ........ .-- 248

Noxious insects (see Insects).....0.0+0+0e1e0ee 636 | Parsley ......-+- cscs: essesseesseeseeens « 214

Nuts. Par: snip,—V arieties and culture. .- 202
Culture, ete—Butternut, Chestnut.... 310 | Passion-flower.......... Seseeeaeraeael Acsroacere so) ts
Filbert .. posoconaceenicoe . 311 | PasTUREs.

Shellbark, “Walnut... vee OLD Permanent ........0+eceee a reaanenvisesousuaenemntie

Nut-hive and bee-boxes... . 422 7 Stocking...........++ orefecocesncic BS ceooeer cy li

EA.
Warieties)...:..c2-.sscesesseacsrentaxparemenetenemeaenel
0. Culture, enemies.

Oar. Biver] asting <s.cs-<onanacecleceaewaneaseaee
Varieties . mripceesboci sce © Pa) Late e Li .
Soil. preparing ‘the “land, sowing, cul- Eropazation, soil and Ae cul-

ture.. eoacacaccianterccee tac ttesee eer ee ture... SeRAOTe> oscoacer 287
Reaping... Randers som ea@eneienr oectseoien faeces 8+ iii arieties, — -Alberge... 288
Diseases and enemies. . 84, 599 Belle de Vitry......... 290
Insects injurious to........ sasreotnsacigaccon 639 Bergen’s Yellow. csssc0s- . 289

OcTOBER. Catharine, Chancellor.. . 290
Kitchen-garden calendar for.............. 218 Coolidge’s Favorite...... . 287
Wt Callen an stensassestessssoeane Arrou 5) Crawford’s Late..... . 289
Live-stock calendar .. + 385 Karly Tillotson.. . 290
Floricultural calendar.... . 510 Early York, George the ‘Fourth... . 287

Olerate-scecesacc- sencs ote enasenriets 202 Golden Ball.. Mecpod curt. . 290

Oleander .. . 494 Gross Mignonne... . 287

CON Sd sareocoseronchecoine: eto cboroneeriesu cousuucrccre tp nels Hyslop’s Clings Incomparable, ‘Late

ONION. Admirable, Late Heath, Late Pur-
Varieties and Culture.........sseeeeeeeeee eee 201 ple, Lemon Freestone, Malta, Mon-
PIRCABES aca c-ecasiecsiconacs 599 strous Cling... wanes bane
Ll Werteraso 649 Morris, Noblesse. nic .

Orange.., ....... Of saalcen 312 Nutmeg, Old Newington cae

ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL TREES "AND SHRUBS. Oldmixon Freestone «.. s+.

Culture, soil, seasons and modes........ 497 President .. noe
After-management, situation and ar- Red Cheek Melocoton aoiesamaee nae

TAN PEMENE ...s.secce eaten cos cce sss cariesceus Red Magdalen, Red Rareripe..........- . 289
WATIOHIEN Pepsemsscevetstecetn.co-casannaes H Ward’s Late Free ...... esse reseses .. 290
Monthly Calendar of Operations........ 507 White.. 289
Grafting, budding, pruning, training.. 564 White Imperial .. wae 200:
IR@HSERieeeeaeenencpeeseetaes eee eneceaeeheseene 5 Wellow Rareripe <..:...-<<scensc-eoene=ee-neee 289
Insects injurious to... Monthly Calendar of Operations Scene . 313

OsIERS. Diseases .........- sas venceaats baxaeteloe
Varieties ........... Insects i injurious ‘to. sap anee 650
Mode of cultivation... Peach plant (double flowering) ..........+.. 494

Ostrich: fOW18...5.-00s.ccccecscacvesencnas Pear.

Ox. Propagation, soil and situation, cul-
Breeding and rearing........ccceceeeeereeeee SIT ture.. 291
Fattening .........00¢ cose ee Sol Varieties — Bartlett .. aygeean Peeetro- 9 292
INE ek ebraereb er omc tones « 324 Belle et Bonne, Belle Lucrative . 296
Names at different ia a BEA acecc a Pen 225 Beurre Bose ...:--<-0c:seseeueeeeeeneerene vesees 204
How to judge of. etc....... -o4 322 Beurre de Amaulis, Beurre pia BleekK-
Explanatory skeleton of... 323 CTS Meadow ...-..cseees cecconser ses
Native.........secseceee eieeese . 825 BlOOAZO0G) ke cezee-eeusieoeenceeaens
Devon.......+++ a 327 Colmar, Columbia, Cushing
Short-horned .. . 330 Dearborn’s Seedling ......+..

Hereford erc.cccecesscacccnccsccscsnccsceseese site

Easter Beurre .......00sese00s

» 296

INDEX. 717
Flemish Beauty ..........ccecsesesseeveeeeeees 290 How to hold the plough, construction
Frederick of Wurtembarg, “Falton, of the plough .........+++ Bi cbpivcsabamacens 36
Glout Morceau.. Sebaaaccnataensvns 290 RIGPES a scwscts cates Oak
Golden Beurre of Bilboa . 295 General operation .. 38
Honey, Jargonelle ......... Seahebapsiay cnagnee 296 Gathering, casting .......-... 41
Madeleine ............. 292 Cleaving, cross-ploughing .. 42
Marie Louis 296 SUDSOI ceccssessstcassasins aeeee 43
Muscadine.. 298 Fallow .. - Ad
Passe Colmar, Pound, “Rousselet ‘de Varieties ‘of. ploughs — _ lock. . coulter
BIAEETTN os eeee adaceeedclete inecascrauaves wesaten oO wheel, and draft-rod.. SaacpccsseseetOul
Seckel .. Sas . 294 Subsoil ........000 Sewanee . 43
St. Germaine, St. Michael, Stevens 3 Paring .... 33
Genesee, Summer Melting. serene 296 Biehl wawwctkcuseclecsuctaweuseas cone sadcaeeseose ster ome
Summer Frank Real ............ +066 . « 295] Prum.
Swan’s Egg ....... epeus.vens .. 296 Propagation, soil and ppc cul-
DYSON .. 0000-2008 = sen ZOE ture. &e...... rc re
Vergouleuse... «- 296 Varieties — Bleecker’ s s Gage ..
Winter Nelis .. aoenes see 292 Black Dawson, Blue Dwarf Gage ..
Monthly Calendar of Operations -.. eesssnOle Cloth of Gold, Coe’s Golden Drop ....... 298
Grafting, budding, pruning, training, 564 VR SOW ss. aces eovactetece topmaoumeersesaraeseenes 300
IAVEERIREN ie aetc a creegencadaesnacktavceicksacccsesenn 599 ran ai OT <scncratee 298
Insects injurious to ..... cece ceeeseseeeeees 650 Duane’s Purple ..... 299
Peaty soils..........4 25 Elfrey, Early Roya 300
Draining ... 59 WAVOTNEC! oucscactnvecactsone susan ers 298
Penny-royal ..... 214 Flushing Gage, Frost Gage . 300
Peony ....... cecaecsecsseeeecs svecesececes senses seeeens 496 Green Gage Toeeaereee cenecaren Meese eeuaas .. 296
Pepper ......... 203 Huling’s Superb, Imperial Ottoman... 300
Peppermint...... .... 214 POMEL SOM acc asace veces) cansanenvenjedsbacey creed . 296
Perennial flowers ........ weve 478 Lombard ........ 800
Pickling pork .. edvesescirenpuupediescacgassses Od Long Scarlet.... 298
Pig. — (See Swine.) M’ Laughlin .. 300
Pine trees ......... 004+ Wap tuvedadsat su scscesavedyuesesy OUL Moroceo .. 298
Pink .. 494 Prince’s Imperial Gage .. . 300
Pip in fowls. are 412 Purple Favorite, Red Gage : 298
Plans of flower-gardens . ace aes OT Royal Hative ..... ......... Sa saRP Senne « 300
RE Se FAYM-DMUAINES <6 20..seiscersctsesecones 512 Scarlet Gage... ..-c00sesesscecees sosse cnsaue 298
PLANTS YIELDING Dyes, O1Ls, &c. Smith’s Orleans ........cssccesssessctosesevere 300
Indigo. Washington .. eereveas seus 296
Description, varieties, soil ...... o/esuanseant LOG Monthly Calendar of Operations ... . 313
Culture, extraction of the dye ........... 167 564

Madder.

Description, soil, culture, &c. ............ 168
Cleaning, curing, and grinding the
TOOtS, S6C....0..... sGUcansesdetaueweccan .. 169,170
Weld.

Description, soil, culture, &c. .....
Woad.

- 170-172

Description, soil, culture, &c. ...... 172, 173
Turmeric.

Description, soil, uses........ Gapspacnacl LQ Oy Lie
Sumach.

Varieties, soil, climate, cultivation, &c. 175
Bastard Saffron.

epee ptiony soil, climate, culture,
MISC iA ab sass'scscrssenansedi:ancesses + 175,176
Teasel.

Description, soil, culture, uses, &c. 176,177
Colza.
Description, soil, culture, &c. ...... 177-179
ype.
Description, soil, culture, &e. ..... 179,180
Sunflower.
Description, soil, culture, uses ..
Castor-oil plant.
Description, iia soil, culture,
MEOW rad ctacuedyasacsgach pesazaceNosr@teces 181, 182
Plants and Planting. — - (See each plant
under its head.)
PLovenina. .
Remarks on ....
Rules for .........

pan tHO) 181

Grafting, budding, Benne; training,
Diseases . ees 7
Insects injurious ‘to.
Pneumonia, or inflammation of lungs in

AVAWNAG cnasensadgenrestas teases Ay ence ero 378
Pointer dg): casa -2sos000s we. 867
Poisons, how to treat.. «- 378
Poland goose .. see 401
Poll-evil in animals .. os O19
Polyanthus Spec 493, 494
POMEPZTADALE ....cceeeeee cee seceen eens cesar seeeees . 312
POPPYiinescnsncceeue 495
Pork, pickling ... eines 351
Porous subsoil......... 26
Portable grist-mill ..... went LOK
Position of the apiary........ Wes saccdeecmevesnesve 419
POTATO.

Propagating, varieties, soils, oe
THALES. .sss0cnccunnens cscnssens sstscenscessnsn) OO

TSG crceuni ses acnvits, 98

Diseases and. enemies . 4, 99

Planter and Seed-dvill .. seadpese unis
Sweet...... Sauvanenecane ;
The Ret.

Description ......ecceee sees ove

Causes .......

Remedies ...... Pe
Poultry, or the various ‘domestic fowls. 613
Presses, CHES ......seeeesseeserensee snsene ee . 220

ss ha 159

ne oi 373

yu
Pricked or wounded ‘feet i in animals ..
5 udev oe

Primrose ..

eee eee tee eee eee eee eee ew

718 INDEX.
Procreating age of CAbLG sicccsdcassescvacerencad PLO Miley Goat: cscs: rcceadssn(caucesdenatusecesenerieticl
* sheep. paaus 339 D a

ee fe SOR WINCsscacs 349
2 CIS ha veys teres serve 306
My SET Coir Samer . 862| “ grub of the Livi red bud betel 657
ae PIMs Layers . 864 | Red-footed beetle... Peeper erence eeecect, (ELL
« Cie Ss 0); at .. 36s: | REG Spider cc.ccc)sonsksocnseccuseneenetees

Propagating. — (See Animals, ‘Vegetables,
Fruits, &c.)

PRUNING.

Uses, forest trees, ornamental Pesan or-
namental shrubs............+++-

Fruit trees and shrubs
Herbaceous plants ......... :
Closes Prim in eo oeencc--0-- cot eeanseeeaeeeeees
Shortening-in, fore-shortening, s

Lopping, cutting down, stopping and
pinchingout .......
Ringing, disbudding .. =n
Disleafing, slitting and splitting, bruis-
ing and tearing, root pruning.........
Girdling and fei, seasons for pru-
TR aoeed pocoucosree ner gaccenicocren ceaces sor tated)
Puccinia graminis - eatedne -
Pumiced feet in animals ......

584

Pumpkin, varieties and culture. 204
Purple apple weevil. ......... 20... 658
«Hyacinth bean . 495
Purslane .. sep 214
Pyrenium Parthenium... ava suwscn sasnucwuvguaeen, Oe)
Q.
Qualities of dairy cows. apaaleesiesanwel Cee
Cape ler evil or quarterll i in n animals xedsees! OOS
QUEM DEO sec acsrstscsuncenstcencs<ssensnenieuuet ewes al)
QUINCE.
Propagation, &c. . .. 800

Varieties—Apple- shaped, ‘Orange Pear-
shaped .......... a
Portugal . sopra sawentpndies s
Mon thly Calen 5
Siti’ bse PEouigs | training,

Diseases 5 cfecssceces i)
Insects injurious Hore Wessidivwaueatjensadaeces DOL
R,
SOMA ie sucnedeisascesuseeesecenenerne Pi Bire woes OO2
Radish, varieties, culture, TOrCiNE...s.s..55 204
Rape.
Description, soil, culture .............2.0+- 179
Gathering the crop, uses ... 180
Rape (edible-rooted) ........ssseseeseees fe cceuseee - 205
RASPBERRY.
Propagation, &c. . ws 302
Varieties — ‘American "Black, ‘Cushing,
Double-bearing Yellow ............:1.00+ 3804
TRABUCO) EE setceste2cecccpascesacacets marae enemies + 303

Franconia, Howland’s Red, New Red,
Ohio, Red Antwerp, True Red, White
Antwerp, Yellow Antwerp ............. 304

Reaping grain. — (See each kind of grain.)
REARING Live-sTOcK.

Neat CHUtle vi ccsssacassennae eaanere apccuren tan

Relation between soil and subsoil ..

Removing Stones, -2.:2-0ciescne-nebecnccetaneaeeeeen
Rennet, different modes of te and
treating . 2.2... .0sccce Hap acareemeceel

Repotting flowers .. -« 483
Rheumatism in animals .... 375, 879
RHUBARB.

Varieties and Culture.........c0cscsercseeee 204

IR OUCLIN ES eresecessaectersatenceneaaas «. 205
Rhynchospermum jasminoides . pease - 495
RIcE.

Varieties and description ......-..++.ss+++ 127

Mode of cultivation in South Carolina, 128
Chinese mode of cultivation, cleaning,

use. Sasa seascnonsttte sonieRaepeeaeeaee
Ridge ploughing .. on 39
Rind grafting... ...2..s0 en. 569

Ring-bone in horses .
Rippling flax
Roaring in animals

Rock-muple tree . 501
Rollin gisi:.cseseersnsacs 47
Root Sern vee 571

“ pruning. « 584
Rose bush .. cans 495

“ acacia, of ‘Sharon aos ewe 5OL

{8 traiming sccarsess ces seve 588
ROS€ERMALY ......00- eeveere wove 214
Ror.

Tn animals cccccostccoscvorcnee secencenres od Site
Potato rot.

Description ......... recat scuscesaecormaranaspneeTeal

Causes ........ - «ee 615

Remedies ...... «. 623
Rotation of crops .. aon oe
Rotting hemp.......... . 189
Rouen or Rhone duck......... 407
Round-bone, sprained, in animals .. ore OLD
Roupiin fowls .2.c..c+ scscoctenrscnesnns mers «. 413
Rudbeckia plant .... ++» 496
FOIE Sree cehuetvaccucces 215

Rumkin fowls .. rina
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
Farm-dwellings and Cottages.

General principles to be observed. plans

for buildings .. .. 512
Model of a moderate- ‘sized farm- ‘house,
model of a one-story house ......... . 513
Model of a medium-sized house......... 514
Model of a large farm-house sae
Tudor style of cottage ........--sessseseseee
Model of double beer structure...... 520
Modifications of plans .......2:seceseeeeeeee 52D
Dairies.
General remarks, different apartments
of the dairy-house, Site .......+.seees se 522
To secure a proper temperature, ar-
rangement of the apartments ......... 525
Store-loft or upper rooms, model of a
complete Gairy ......:..s-seeeee ompvavnnqaceOe
Barns.

Plan of apartments, light and air, to
prevent depredations of vermin...... 527
Model of the Washington barn ......... 528

INDEX.

BECIOLS ATT ssagpesscesscessseneontsexveavenctave’ O20

Site, light, and air ........
Stalls, racks, and mangers . akxeoueatvan aie 532
Cart-sheds and Implement-houses.
AIDC MEO, tote. bs cavsccsecostoevesd sncnpsurustenvvece DOG
Granaries.
PNAS HELL Graigaciunedsouapeneresuvavsisese + 533
Ice-houses,
Necessity for, mode of construction,
PEIN WAGE ICO se cnc. cecvarsascve ands woovues
Sheep-folds.
General remarks, arrangement of folds,
feed-racks, and troughs...

aeeeeewee

Cattle-sheds.
Uses and requisites, arrangement...... 536
Calfhouses, apartment for boiling food,
apparatus necessary, MOG seit vosceen 5
Piggeries.
Site, plan of construction.........000.s00 540
Separate sties...........0.00« ewe O41
Poultry-houses.
General principles and requisites,
AIMEE AGK ay SOUTIN 5.03. cses esevatvnciaen it uedace 542
Roosting-perches and nests, to render
the poultry-house healthy...........-.. 543
Conveniences for hatching, appurte-
nances, air and space, accommoda-
tions for keeping poultry on a large
NERO sdccusiiveriassiselavens Belddaiess<ne ene
Plan of construction and general 1 ma-
nagement......... Beaediusthwan ances Oe
Arrangement of the Furmery.
Situation ....... Retain accuhaweats uPratadn loos . 546
Kind of buildings, disposition of the
different buildings..................c00008 547
Plan of buildings for a large farm...... 548
Plan of buildings for a small farm..... 549
Stack-yard, drainage of farmery.......... 549
Green-houses.
May be easily constructed, materials
and mode of building..............0222+. 550
Arrangement of the lights............... 551
Flues for heating.......... pesae sce ssenatcvaces, OO

Fences and Gates.
Different kinds, building stone-walls.. 553
Materials, implements, rules to be ob-

BELVO sees cezscnnce ikecdspaxcasivs ob¥gsaceseepe 554
Advantages of stone-wall............ eevee DDD
Form and method of constructing

ZAECBiceceensvee cuve coccvccesqecccsnncess cocces 555
Hanging, hinges, latch, gate-posts.. 556
Arbors .,......... <= . 484

Garden-seats ...........00008 maapens
Bee-houses, hives and boxes.......
Russian or Siberian fow]s...........05 s+ decoee OOZ
Rust (also see Diseases of Plants)...
BRAN Le tlas decee even evs usscvnpssavecetsateddsevedacsve. 200
RYE.
Varieties, soil........... pubdasahesavaddestheve, CO
Time for pies culture, d sweetie and
uses .. eb eseenmeensen pueesessbesn OO
Diseases ‘and: enemies. see 81, 599
Insects injurious £0.......0eeccesersereeeeee 639

Saddle-galls im horses.....0s00ssssessescsseeesseess OTD
i : coselees 570
woes 21D

719

215
249

SBC Oierssvsvecsrtotvanscvseaeveccdscsensessceswepascouence
Sage cheese.........0000
SAINFOIN.

re eee et et errr ers

Description and habits........ 144
Culture.... auee 145
Diseases ...... 599
Salix viminalis... 507
“ Forbiana . 507
CS erabnese at scenes -. 507
Sallenders in horses.. w. 376
Saleify cc isecwaceses « bavetees . 205
Salting butter... . 230
Sandy soils... . 24
Savory race, 216
Saw-fly..... 662, 668
Scab in sheep... Beene -. 319

Seale insect (see Insects).
Scarlet catalia ay neil ae plant 496

Scholytus........... Siecvacvane 662
Scions for grafting... at 566

6h transmitting. e 57+
Scorzonera......... 206
Seotch Pine. .... 501, 504
Scour in lambs. - 379
Scouring-rot.. A pert
Scraping broom-corn... eae . 134
Bea-leale eisssccvccsscvce deen owe « 206
Securing good Hibweessasase Sees + 440
Seed (see each kind under its er
Selecting hens............0000. Peers Wddegastceas=s DOR
SEPTEMBER.

Kitchen-garden calendar for.............. 218

Fruit calendar........ Maepvavatandensui sreeach 315

Live-stock calendar........ » 3885

Floricultural calendar... 509
Setter dog............ wibavadwe ssdeer 367
Shagbark .. 313
Shallot........ 206
Shearing......... 340
Sheds, — cart... 535

GOP NEBUEIO wiohps evbaveuus div b0atcsde cee eoteudereem ORO

SHEEP.

Rearing... wvbys'scvere \esceccsbssheaness, OOD.

Castrating, weaning, shearing... =
For market, food, mountain sheep,
smearing, signs of good health
Improvement of breeds, form... =F
Age, wool and its characteristics...
TADCER cesecctres nes
Long-wooled.
Short-wooled...
Cheviot, South-Down, Black-faced or
Heath. Sea 5
Merino......
Diseases .
Monthly Calendar of Operations...
Folds.
General Remarks.. ......- aveneoncioaonens ben
Arrangement of folds....
Feed-racks and troughs..
Insects injurious to....
Shellbark........ be suastnuxsass
Shepherd dog.. ...
Shield budding...

Shortening-in . oe + 580
Short-horned cattle: , +. 330
Short-wooled sheep........ auvcedwise cousctape seeeee SLB
Suruss AND TREES, ORNAMENTAL.
axtirpating. ive. vlevssedavncs veceshvihonts 29
Ornamental, culture and varieties...... 501

Monthly Calendar of Operations........ 507

720

Grafting, “budding, pruning, train-

AM seems oH swzseullece OOF
Diseases. s- 599
Insects injurious to.. « 650

Siamese SWINE «2.6. ..ecee ee soe OOD
Siberian fowls.. «. 392
Side grafting... eoeprerh 2h)

Sixk Worms AND MULBERRY | "TREES.
Description of the silk-worm, and of

the mode of propagation.............++. 457
Cocoonery... -. 459
Spinning and ‘reeling the silk. 459
asia) tiesa-cessanarensenenerercecenas 460
The Bombyx Cynthia... 460
The Gaturnia Ceanotha.. 460

Silky fowls.. Heerogsce . 892
Silver Firs... Becca ocac 501
Sit-fasts in animals. 379
Sitting of hens...... 396
= turkeys. 399
Skim-milk cheese... 247
Skip-jack beetle. ... 644
SKICEEtireccresnswscedsene ns 206
Small ermine-moth... 056
Smear ing... sees seeeeeee eee 342
Smut disease......... ascent
a description, causes and ‘phenomena. 625

66 PYEVENTIVES 2.000520 saceceneasssnen sossoonns 63

Snow-ball bush...
Snowberry........ ae
SOilimg.....005..cccccae secccr center ssescceresnsscecvcees
Sos. THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT,
General remarks, composition...
Classification, clayey, Bravels sandy,

peaty. 24
Loam. .......00. 25
Analysis of....... 25
Relation between the soil and subsoil, 2a
Clayey SUDSOIL ........ ...-250-- enseenseoeesses 25
Porous subsoil, quality of subsoil,

depth of the soil, means of increas-

ing productive powers and rendering

fit for cultivation, altering the pro-

portion Of ingredients........ceecereeees 26

Clearing.
Plan of operations, forests................ 28
SWiaste 1AmOS ii cccce. cececeaesl--aderersercanes 29
Paring and burning, leveling w uneven

BUTEA CeRsaes-eiesanncecesaredes«suebsaeeere nas 32

Removing Stones .........sssseeeereeeeeseeeee OF
Ploughing.

Tes POY p-ecsentedsancneice=reseesawacenasnane 35

How to hold the plough, construction

Of PlOUGh....... ceeerreceeneecesenee cescoeses 36
Depth of ploughing, ridges 37
Gathering, casting............ 39
Cleaving, cross- ploughing... 42
Subsoil.........c+ccecns secsee sees - 43
ALLOW, susncoscace<ocvessesoccaceeracests nasssseas 44

Harrowing.
Uses and Modes... .....cssee ssereereeveeeee ww. §=46
Rolling.
Uses...+..-+ deecee bce aiiecosserccaseotrote eacanaene 47
Manuring.
Action of manures, natural manures. 49
Urine... ae 50
Night-soil, ‘management ‘of. manures. 51
Forming composts, litter...........--..-++ 3

Applying liquid manure, dead pedi

[eases ysttnercreerpecea) oc -Saeceecare 54
Vegetable and mineral manures......... 55

INDEX.

Draining.
Causes of wetness in Jands.........-e+. 56
Boggy lands, and the true line of ie
spring... Pe cts OT!
Drains and. peat lands. sasieaedasaamle 59
Hard soils, direction of drains.. sO
Clay land. . soceeassceeclacein Pe il
Varieties of “GrAiNS .v-seeses cee sscesenneue saan (OS
Trrigating.
Channel ia --dencaacrccascsnsetesesenaaeen 63
Kind of soils for the purpose, waters
best adapted, meadow watering 64
Preparing the surface........ccccceseeeee 65
Time to Operate..... ...cccercecnsnsnesesccrses 66
Soils for Grains, Grasses, Vegetables, Fruits,
ete. (see each kind under its head).
Sore-shin (in pee pr odsvcupadsoneauas OE

Sore teats in cows..
Sorgho. a

South-Down sheep... sae nsuaee (oss
Sowing (see each plant under its head).

Spades and shovels........-++-eseseee 27
Spanish fowls............ 391
Spavin. bog and bone. 369
Spice-bush... ......c- sss. 501
Spider fiy..... 639
Spiderwort .. -. 496
Spinach .... 206
PPiledeceresedeancs=s . 501
Splint in animals..............+ seeaee 580
Sprain of round-bone in animals wn BID
Spring beetle... Stteeresrttrece . 644
Spring stock of ‘bees... soscnsece O40
SPRING AND WINTER ‘APPLES.
American Golden Russet... s+ sseeeseeeee 26L
(Bal GWA. sscucessicsisscivensasieel . 258
Blue Pearmain.... . 261
Burlington Greening... Be «. 260
Danvers Winter Sweeting, Detroit...... 261
Esopus Spitzenberg....... G eecar we 208
Fort Miama, Gloria Mundi . 261
Golden Pippin... Sorensen LOND
Golden Reinette, “Hollow Grown Pear-
WHALE) -.eoes saanvcnqeuethe demas
Hubbardston "Nonsuch | sesesase 208
Jersey... ae --- 260
Jonathan, ‘King. wen OL
DAY coco. -cavcsooessonsuces(ssscaseam=an weienanapare 260
Ladies’ Sweeting, Leicester Sweeting,
Little Pearmain, Miner Neverfail. 261
Newtown Pippin... aaeece . 259
Northern SPY, | Norten’s ‘Melon, “Old
Nonsuch.. soo uvekcauasdavadeaeybeaetemenneene
Pecker . rs . 258
Peck’s Pleasant, “prior’s Red, Rauie’s
Janette. “cE vaasadeeaannWehiocneees
Rhode Island Greening : dane AOU!
Rockrimmon... . 261
Roxbury Russet. waneee . 259
Steele’s Red Winter. ..........-cee-cseseees 258
Swaar, Tewksberry Winter- Blush, Tol-
man Sweeting, Vandevere, Waxen.. 261
Westfield Seek-no-further............00++++ 258
Wood’s Greening.....-...0+ + a
Springs, sepa the line of, ete
Spruce trees.. sas euse secadsaraauseeuamennenetnn
Spurring-in ..

Squash -:....-ceceesse
STABLE.
Site, light and air..........
Stalls, racks, mangers....

INDEX. 721
STACEY AVG. csas csevensse sasvene «cid oseicssias¥veeseeere, OBO Boiling the sap wasiswiscisvswesseereescves 502
Staggers...... 368 Clarifying ........ seen. 502
Staling in horses.. 380 Clay tig: ceaissts tetcsteioidistvensantctestver 503
TOUBLIB as onsvannsosuctenscens:cccacss « 532 Molasses and vinegar............0000 itieees) OOS
Steaming food for animals. stascccesceacscsececess O49 | SUMACH.
Steers (see Cattle). Varieties, soil, climate. epee os
PALEMI=DOPIN ES WEEVIL «. scaveseses.ccoasvtacsencsesto ens 609 paration for market, uses.. Sache Lie
Sties for swine............... sesesese O41 | SUMMER APPLES,
Stifie lameness in horses. . 380 Amerivan Summer Pearmain, Benoni,
Stilton cheese......... 245 OOlG, ss sasaes csadeas Ab atkieyareeaksss swap hente 254
Stoneless barberry.. 266 Early Harvest .. i ccimediy
Le medlar.... 283 Karly Red Margaret. “Early” ‘Straw-
Stones. removing... “ 34 berry, Juneating, Manomet Sweet-
Strangles in animals... 380 iM pisssstes 5
Straw... Pavsenrisivncsccsebscsevect¥itccvtacarvea | 04 Red ‘Astrachan.. F a
STRAWBERRY. Red Quarrenden, Sapson, Spice § eet,
Propagation, hehe 80+ Summer naitercac Gear Rose,
Soils, situation... 305 Tucker .. sk dudssbveaackeus Sestss) LOS
Forcing... “ 805 Williams’ Favorite .. Wavav tccdseaudbesadésta ves. COO
Varieties, — _ ~ Bishop’ 3 ‘Orange... 309 | SuNFLowrR.
Black Imperial, Black Prince.. B07 Deseription s. ssaiv. tevescciverits savtesseseeess 180
Boston Pine, British aici wiiten. Bacuadiae 309 Soil and culture, uses . 181
NGPIREADA Rca va dye ones fives caupeandieonttis shasta 308} Sutfeit in-animals:.escasesciesacascessus thecesss 380
Downton Srseetare Sussex cattle .. 335
Duke of Kent... SWARMING oF Bres.
Elton.......... LINKS; INGICAtIONB 6555/26: Vetkretad ae dhsnae 441
Hovey’s Seedling. ROipreveritiecsiiai aitiesarecccatedwad ates 442
Hudson’s Bay.......... ia ivi To secure a swarm that has settled,
Large Early ‘alee ta) CLR ee ie Sele effects of SWATMING «2.02... 05002. seeeee 443

Methven Scarlet. Myatt’s Pine
Prolific Hautbois, Red Wood, Ross

Phoenix, Swainstone’s Seedling taketh 307
White Alpine. White Wood.............. . 809
Monthly Calendar of ERETE EEA ipatones 313
Strawberry tree.. dacivaceviacenvas 496
SORA HAVE... 0.007005 conscvsss ost . 426
Striped-fruited currant.............03 ae 274
Stumps and trees, how extracted... » ol
Sturdy in animals..............c0scceees . 381
SuBSOIL.

Relation between soil and, a clayey sabeus 25

Porous, quality, depth ..........cseceee 26

SERINE ceive aa veasessveuthaiaie 43
Suckering BON spccontnvierere * 90

SurFoLK ANIMALS.
Cl a er
Swine...

Tlorses sdabua

Decpertionl of lime used ..

SUGAR-CANE.
Description ... + 104
Varieties, soil, planting, ‘and. rattoon-
SUI Roel ox sees tne pueaiwaoeuasboes sacKuck code 104
gas the crop, ae the joa
Hasvece LOG
aodtw zeven LOT
transac cone purging, clayed
BORE Goins coy sannt's cvs wadetecsyWicvsavs. « 108
Boiling by steam, bag in vacuo,
yield .. bs

Chemical compounds. sits
Sugar-cane, See
ae ‘* Africana ..
SUGAR-MAPLE.
Tapping the trees .............

To avoid, in the case of collateral
BORER secaussesdvetyeteantbas dvevealiere nscale
Swedish turnip ..
Sweet-bay plant ..
Lig marjoram ..

& 5) POh weds asec
66. Williaa pai sivas setievsousk tovetenescte, 497
Sweer Porato.
Description, varieties, soil, culture .. 99
Preservation of crop, and ‘propagation
from old vines ..... davetecaaneddesuprestace 100
Swelled legs in animals ..............s..c00e00.68 380
SWINE.
Breeding, eagike treatment of dam
and young .. . 349

Castrating, weaning, treatment “after
eee food, pease of the
CALCABE witli sei s0s88 deen av’

ARATONTY.: 22585 202 casee

Varieties — China...

Berkshire ......-...

Suffolk, Woburn, Siamese ..

Diseases... rac

Insects injurious to. F

Monthly Calendar of ‘Opera TONS ss. 381

Piggeries — site, plan of construction,
&e.

Syringa plant .. actadeienycouceseevane ant gavter

TABLES USEFUL TO THE FARMER.

Table I.—For reducing yards into acres,
roods, and perches ..... ..sseeseeeee 683-685

Table 11.— Exhibiting the number of
plants which may be raised on a
perch of land at different distances. 686

Table I1J.—Exhibiting the number of
plants which may be raised on an

acre of land at different distances ... 686
Table 1V.— Rotations ee in
Pennsylvania. ae isreraettrsee

122

Table V.—For determining the weight
of cattle by measurement............ .. 687

Table VI.— Mixtures of grass seed re-
commended for pastures, lawns,
mowing-grounds, &c., on different
kinds of soils.and the quantity to be
sown on each acre, together with the
weight per bushel of each kind of
seed, &e., &c..

Table VII. — Exhibiting ‘the distance
ordinarily travelled by a horse in
ploughing one aere of land, together
with the quantity of land worked
during a day 9 hours long, supposing
the horse to travel at the rate of 16
and 18 miles per day respectively ..

Table VIII.—Live and dead ede of
cattle ..

Table 1x, — Showing how much ‘ma-
nure will be necessary for an acre of
ground, supposing the heaps to be
of certain sizes, and deposited at
definite distances)... <.cac.cesseoseeevert .

Table X.—The results of observations
on the reproductive powers of domes-
tic birds and animals........... s.seeee 5

Table XI.—The proportion ofinorganic
substances contained in several of
the most commonly eultivated escu-
lents

Table XII.—The proportion of inorga-
nic substances contained in the re-
fuse of the most commonly cultivated
esculents .. 25

Table XIII.—The proportion ‘of several
elementary substances contained in
100 parts of some of the most com-
monly cultivated esculents ............

Table XIV.—The proportion of several
elementary substances contained in
the produce of one acre, planted with
the esculents most copoly’ eulti-
vated as food for stock ..........:1s00006 692

SUANIRY/ cc cosdnc diss ecanaecensc cucaatantes as ass
Tapping or driving hives ............000.0« cosees
TARR.

Sexe eeves soil, time of sowing.
Tartar: Sheep 22 -s.cossavjecaessseateees
TEA PLANT.

Remarks on.

Varieties and ‘description, “soil ‘and “cli-

mate, culture .. Sofie.

Manipulation of the leaves ....+.
TEASEL.

Description, varieties, soil and pubinire:

gathering the crop .. 176

Saving the seed, use, ‘Value. ‘of “the

CrOpiecsnce eaedsnamaance
Teats, sore. = Cadieaex
Tender annual flowers ees
Mexrier:GOws cases secesecosnse
Thermometer ‘churn . Bese aes
Thick wind in animals....
Whining COMM, «..cs.2. +. «aes
Thorough-pin in horses.
Threshin Qeac.acesrcvaseaees

- 688

689
. 689

690

691

692

eeee

Seeseesecaceces te eeereee

Tiger lily ..... e

INDEX.

Tillage. — (See each plant under its head,
also Soils.)

Tillinghast’s Churtss.asesesssoessdeeaeeeceneer ste
TOBACCO PLANT.
Description, varieties ... css: cssssasscasenss
Raising the plants, soil and climate ...
Mode of culture, topping and priming,
Suckering and vor =e and
housing .. ar auntenateae
Curing, stripping and prising.

Nicotine extracted from ......... 127
Tomato .. nae ans, 20F
Torsion i in ‘animals +. 320
Toulouse goose ......... +» 400
Trailing blackberry ............ . 267
TRAINING.

Uses, principles...

Manual operations... 587
Training herbaceotis and_ "shrubby
plantsi in pots, training hardy flower-
ing shrubs in the open ground, train-
ing fruit-trees ...... se onstscaesensdeeaeeeene . 588
Different modes of training bushes
and trees in the open ground, and
fruit-trees — walls or espa-
liers.. rerececrtrs ct
Training dwarfs. in “the ‘open garden,
spiral cylinders\.....,-sssssssesssssuasseseea 591
Spurring-in .. ae sere O92
Conical standards . 593
Fan training .. fs oe 594
Horizontal training... « 596

Perpendicular training, comparative
view of the different modes of train-

IG s.ssseseessscessessescesseneersaseesenssersaee SOT

Tread in animals

TREES AND SHRUBS, ORNAMENTAL AND
USEFUL.
Extraction of ...... cancducsstheaaeatalntomssomenatean
Ornamental Shrubs.

Soil, seasons, and modes....... eoreadhae «2 497

After-management, situation, and ar-
rangement... isSonssasanseeeee

Varieties Azalea, ‘Calycanthus, Car-
olina Syringa, Double flowering
Almond, Dwarf White flowering
Horse-chestnut, Hawthorn, Honey-
suckle, Japan Sophora, Juniper,
Lilac, Mountain Laurel, Mountain
Rose, Primrose, Rose Acacia. Rose of
Sharon. Scarlet flowering Chestnut,
Snowball, Spice bush, Spirea, Straw-
berry tree. : cosaesectenca mee

Ornamental and Useful Trees.

Abele, Ailanthus, Ash, Basswood Elm,
Horse-chestnut, Linden, Locust,
Rock Maple, Sugar Mavi Tan tree,
Willow.. ocoosvnectesnecleeseneaseon Dea

American Silver Firat 504

ae White Spruce.. . 504

BOX aceseccncnccconsnssenaeier ww. 503

Cluster Pine... . 503

European Silver Fir. seas . 504

Evergreen Cypress ..... . 505

Hemlock .......2- 0020+ » 506

Larch Pine .............. wee 504

Magnolia grandiflora .. « 503

Norway Spruce Fir..... ooocasene (O0G

Scotch Pine... sevens 5O4

Spruce Fir... <....<-. ssosconesenseearscus wees 506

INDEX.

Culture ...

V@TICbICS ...ncc reece veces recess Bie Hee 501
Monthly Calendar of Operations prasavacOd
Grafting, peers ee ae « 564
Diseases .. Semen Eas aatieeeeernsdessecssapenesnnOee
Insects injurious to.. 650

PEG pisacesssvacnes ‘ 496
* tree... 501

423
Weeks’ bev-hive .......2+ssssscevecessssees sresrenere 401
Weevils, destructive. — (See Insects. :)
WELD.
Description ......... Fol)
Soil and culture, gathering ‘the ‘crop,
WELLING feacoeea os nn caaiiechistsavaceucseussenueonane 71
Saving the seed. DREN eeeesses esse 1i2

Westphalia hams ..

TURKEY. Wetness in lands.........0.....ccsccnscctessacrseren, OG
Varieties ...... 0.2.2. ee wenslehe estan faivine nan « 3897 | WHeat.
Keeping, qualities .. Maagedacisaaduss 398 AOTASSII CATION: 2 ccactesivenconessiendapsane ausauanet 100)
Laying, sitting, hatching .. ass O09 Best varieties for cultivation ............ 71
Treatment of the young, “fattening, Soils, time for sowing seed, eulture,
feeding .... 400 quantity of seed, after-culture .. 73
Diseases... Cutting and harvesting ara ny wth
T} MNP. Diseases and enemies ..... 75, 599
Varieties and culture Insects IN] UTIOUS tO .......eceee ceeeee ceeeeeee 639
Swedish or ruta-baga.... erOS | Wie ys PPCM caccnsecsssasaens 0 236
SRIERPIEIIGH OUTINGS onscesiseanet\ns<secenseese=eiesenan 209 | White lily ........ cessseccescscce sneses sonseoncssccess 492
BU Yves vee ner ceecsnsces sveveee O45 “mulberry ..... cesses 461
Turnsick in sheep “4 - 380 | Whole-milk butter.. sereaaesen ees
Twelve-spotted leat TAGE NG ss sseassasess ocoacere O84 oe (RGR EOvccansistsueranecencssensioncdesay= 235
Whortleberry .........02.+++ . 313
y WAGE CHELYY:scacccssanece lesessuscesansaarecnscenatse 270
Willow tree... om
in animals....... Wind-broken . ve 36
sa ae ae fowls ie Wind-mill .. Seaddenaeenaceutenssaprsesr et LO
Gon... : aa Wine. — (See Vineyards.)
MEE ITIROL IB frcctes = aiccccscaceecucnscegzescov asvsea WINTER AND SPRING APPLES.
Utensils, farming. — (See each kind under American Golden Russet ...+..+++...+++++ 261
its head.) Baldiwittsc.csseccncssovscnsensense os. 208
Blue Pearmain .........++4+ 261
Burlington Greening......... . 260
Danvers Winter Sweeting . 261
Vegetable manures Debroitciecssscet ovalesscecasees oi 261
Vegetables .. Esopus Spitzenberg .......... . 258
(See Kitchen-garden;_ “also “each ‘kind ort WMianitpcesssnconsseerese> . 261
under its head.) Gloria Mondic.ccicccnssonens 261
Ventilation of bee-hives .. SEeEpLosecenn Say Golden Pippin... +. 260
® stables .... . 531 Golden Reinette .. meelvaaieesbt oo. 261
Vine .. Dita eteees tasers . 276 Hollow Crown Pearmain ....... 261
ca Gisenses......-.seo0+ne Eenaee . 599 258

“ insects injurious to .. ‘ 650, 668

VINEYARDS.

MURIOTEC (lv sens nonce ssiz<orunstoeneaccast ieeaat 279
Pressing the grapes, making wine...... 280
Making Champagne Wine..........seseee 281
Constituents of wine ........ 282
WAG Etice.ccnsseassecce “none PLO cRe CDCR DECEECE PALES 497
W.

WMIRS BhOtGiecrncett accu cverizc<cccseeccscsovsvectese, OOS
Wealnaiccccsicssieccss SMRERERORCE oper pine) (ccc seusens 313
Warbles in animals ..... 379, 381, 637
Warts in animals ........ BRaearnteataen antivneed 381
Washing butter ..... - 230
Waste lands, clearing ... 29
Weater-channels...:.0.csssscsscens 63
Water-in-the-head in aLeSE = 375
Water-melon .........0. Rerctnstabcnaicesvireaue . 283
Watering flax . eeacasasan . 142
os MCAD OWS) |. se.enssancccsssce. 64
Waters best adapted for irrigating . 64
Wax — obtaining and prepuring ... 453
Us SOMONE... ose cece eoarce as “ 574
Weaning Lag ceacedeertaanebastteraner ass acs: .. 340
U swine. 350

Co horses .. piessses1 GOO
Woilvelerarting .<i<.cisccssescedesstsccccss + 571

Hubbardston Nonsuch .....
TELSCY ...2ssceeeee orc
Jonathan...
King coves see
HOLY /eceeenoustoiens
Ladies’ Sweeting ...
Leicester Sweeting ...
Little Pearmain ............
Ministetirecsccess<ce
Neverfail :.....s.0.<
Newtown Pippin ...
Northern Spy .......
Norton’s Melon...
Old Nonsuch ..
Pecker.. fagoleae
Peck’s Pleasant . Be
Prior’s: Red.........-
Raule’s Janette........-....
Rhode Island Greening .
RockrimmMon............eeee0+ 0
Roxbury Russet ..........000.
Steele’s Red Winter....

Tewksbury Winter-blush..
Tolman Sweeting .........

Vandevere .......0. +66
WR ON ao crvceviws acevsectiebsetes
Westfield Seek-no-further.. shaves
Woou’s Greening....... Jesarvescveanadesadtare

724

0689)
a,
4960-7

INDEX.
Winter stall-feeding .....:.c.scccsceassasccsscrcasce 338 ) Worms and grubs ... a
DWAYG-WOLTD vs ccavucaoti coedeot sous! ausaee 76, 640 Ces be uteheb) cstzh Loe ene ryan
Woap. (See Insects.)
Description, soil, preparation of the Wounds of animal®........:sssscccccssssensehenene
soil, and culture of the plant ......... 172
Gathering. aloes of the eee
saving the seed, uses ........... - 173
Woburn swine. ce oc $55) Yellow, TOS) 5. cssccccccsoauses asansnedaeeenesteeeaeenee
Womb inflammation in animals... . 3881 | Yellow-tailed moth
Wood leopard-moth . oes 655 | Yellows in animals
Wool, and its characteristics 344

Wool-shearing ..

Working bee ........ : a bee mer cena Z.
e CALS .scesete vcvcntocacracancccanecavatsee O2U DIZY PHUUS LY COIMOS sacagviscecdssnencessiaunarenees -» 562
THE END.

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